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A SCHOOL DICTIONARY
OP
GREEK AID ROMAI ANTIQUITIES
ABRIDGED FROM THE LARGER DICTIONARY.
BY WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D.,
EDITOR OF THE DICTIONARIES OF "GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES," AND "BIOGRAPHY AND MYTHOLOGY."
WITH CORRECTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS,
BY CHARLES ANTHON, LL.D.,
PROFESSOR OF THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW-YORK, AND RECTOR OF THE GRAMMAR-SCHOOL.
NEW YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS.
1857.
D E 5" .
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846, by
HARPER & BROTHERS, In the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New- York.
79566?
PREFACE.
THE present work is designed to supply a want that has been long felt by most persons engaged in classical tuition. Hitherto we have had no work in the English language which exhibited, in a form adapted to the use of young pupils, the results of the labours of modern scholars in the various subjects included under the general term of Greek and Roman Antiquities. The " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities" is intended for the more advanced student, and contains, moreover, information on a vast variety of subjects, which is not required by those who are commencing their classical studies. It has therefore been supposed, that an Abridgment of that work illustrating the Greek and Roman writers usually read in the lower classes of our public schools, and omitting all such matters as are of no use to the young student, might prove an acceptable addition to our school-literature. In fact, the Abridgment was undertaken at the suggestion of the head-master of one of our great public schools, and no pains have been spared to adapt it to the class of persons for whom it is more especially intended. Conciseness and clearness have been chiefly studied ; all discussions on doubtful and controverted subjects have been omitted ; and such of the articles as are suscep- tible of it have been illustrated by woodcuts from ancient works of art.
Though this work has been drawn up chiefly for the use of the lower forms in our public schools, the wants of another class of persons have also been consulted. It is believed that the work will be found to be of no small assistance to those who have not studied the Greek and Roman writers, but who frequently need information on many points connected with Greek and Roman Antiquities. Care has been taken not to presume too much on the knowledge of the reader ; and it is therefore hoped, that most of the articles may be read with advantage and profit by persons who are unacquainted with the classi- cal writers.
IV PREFACE.
It should be borne in mind, that this work does not profess to give an abridged account of all the subjects which are comprised in the larger work. On many matters, such as those relating to Jurispru- dence, and several departments of Art, the reader must refer for information to the other Dictionary. On many subjects likewise, which are contained in this Abridgment, only the most important facts are stated ; those who desire more detailed information, and an account of the conflicting views held by modern scholars on certain points, must consult the original work. In such cases the present work will serve as a convenient introduction to the other, and will enable the student to use the latter with more advantage and profit than he would otherwise have been able to do. It has been considered unnecessary to give in this Abridgment references to ancient and modern writers, as they are not required by the class of persons for whose use the book is designed, and they are to be found in the original work.
WILLIAM SMITH.
London, May 2Qth, 1845.
PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.
THE Editor believes that he is rendering a very acceptable service to the young student, in presenting him with a corrected and im- proved edition of the present work, both on account of the aid which it will afford him in his classical reading, and because the information contained in it will be found to be far more accurate and worthy of reliance than that given in any similar work ever published in this country. In preparing this volume for the press, errors in the London edition have been corrected, many important articles have been added, and the amount of illustrations has been very materially enlarged. The Greek Index, also, which abounded in errors, has been carefully revised and augmented.
C!ol. Cott. Feb. 9th, 1846.
SCHOOL-DICTIONARY
OF
GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.
A'BACUS (a/tof), denoted primarily a square tablet of any description, and was hence employed in the following significa- tions : —
1. A table, or side-board, chiefly used for the display of gold and silver cups, and other kinds of valuable and ornamental utensils. The use of abaci was first introduced at Rome from Asia Minor after the victories of Cn Manlius Vulso, B. c. 187, and their intro- duction was regarded as one of the marks of the growing luxury of the age.
2. A draught-board or chess-board.
3. A board used by mathematicians for drawing diagrams, and by arithmeticians for the purposes of calculation.
4. In architecture, the flat square stone which constituted the highest member of a column, being placed immediately under the architrave.
ABLEG'MINA (cnrohey/u.oi) were the parts of the victi'n which were offered to the gods
in sacrifice. The word is derived from able- gere, in imitation of the Greek d;ro/ley£iv, which is used in a similar manner. These parts were also called Porricice, Prosegmina, Prosfcta. [SACRIFICIUM.]
ABOLLA, a cloak chiefly worn by soldiers, and thus opposed to the toga, the garb of peace. [TOGA.] The abolla was used by the lower classes at Rome, and consequently by the philosophers who affected severity of manners and life.
Abolla, Military Cloak.
ABROGA'TIO. [LEX.] ABSOLU'TIO. [JiiDEX.]
ACCUBATIO.
ACA'TJUM (UKUTIOV, a diminutive of u/cc- rof), a small vessel or boat used by the Greeks, which appears to have been the same as the Roman scapha. The Acatia were also sails adapted for fast sailing.
ACCENSUS. 1. A public officer, who at- tended on several of the Roman magistrates. He anciently preceded the consul who had not the fasces, which custom, after being long disused, was restored by Julius Caesar in his first consulship. Accensi also attended on the governors of provinces. 2. The accensi were also a class of soldiers in the Roman army, who were enlisted after the full number of the legion had been completed, in order to supply any vacancies that might occur in the legion. They were taken, according to the census of Servius Tullius, from the fifth class of citizens, and were placed in battle in the rear of the army, behind the triarii.
ACCLAMA'TIO was the public expression of approbation or disapprobation, pleasure or displeasure, by loud acclamations. On many occasions, there appear to have been certain forms of acclamations always used by the Romans ; as, for instance, at marriages, lo Hymen, Hymenaee, or Talassio ; at triumphs, lo Triumphe ; at the conclusion of plays, the last actor called out Plaudite to the spectators ; orators were usually praised by such expres- sions as Bene et praeclare, Belle et festive, Non potest melius, &C.
ACCU'BITA, the name of couches which were used in the time of the Roman emperors, instead of the triclinium, for reclining on at meals. The mattresses and feather-beds were softer and higher, and the supports (fulcra) of them lower in proportion than in the tricli- nium. The clothes and pillows spread over them were called accubitalia.
ACCUBA'TIO, the act of reclining at meals. The Greeks and Romans were accustomed, in later times, to recline at their meals ; but this practice could not have been of great antiquity in Greece, since Homer always describes per- sons as sitting at their meals ; and Isidore of Seville, an ancient grammarian, also attri- butes the same custom to the ancient Ro- mans. Even in the time of the early Ro- man emperors, children in families of the highest rank used to sit together, while their fathers and elders reclined rm couches at the upper part of the room. Roman ladies con- tinued the practice of sitting at table, even after the recumbent position had become com- mon with the other sex. It appears to have been considered more decent, and more agree- able to the severity and purity of ancient manners for women to sit, more especially if many persons were present. But, on the
ACINACES.
other hand, we find cases of women reclining, where there was conceived to be nothing bold or indelicate in their posture. Such is the case in the following woodcut, which seems
Accubatio, Act of Reclining.
intended to represent a scene of matrimonial felicity. The husband and wife recline on a sofa; their two sons are in front of them; and several females and a boy are perform- ing a piece of music for the entertainment of the married pair.
For an account of the disposition of the couches, and of the place which each guest occupied in a Greek and Roman entertain- ment, see SYMPOSIUM and TRICLINIUM. ACCUSA'TOR, ACCUSA'TIO. [JuDEx.] ACERRA (dv/j-iarripiov, htftavuTpic), the incense-box or censer used in sacrifices.
Acerra, Incense Box.
The acerra was also a small moveable altar placed before the dead, on which perfumes were burnt. The use of the accerrae at fune- rals was forbidden by a law of the Twelve Tables as an unnecessary expense.
A'CIES. [EXERCITU-S.]
ACI'NACES (&KIVUKW), a Persian sword,
ACROSTOLIUM.
whence Horace speaks of the Medus acinaces. The acinaces was a short and straight weapon, and thus differed from the Roman sica, which was curved. It was worn on the right side of the body, whereas the Greeks and Romans usually had then swords suspended on the left side. The form of the acinaces,with the mode of wearing it, is illustrated by the following Persepolitan figures.
Acinaces, Persian Sitord
ACL1S, a kind of dart with a leathern thong attached to it. [AMENTUM.]
ACROA'MA (aKpoafia), which properly means anything heard, was the name given to a concert of players on different musical in- struments, and also to an interlude performed during the exhibition of the public games. The word is also applied to the actors and musicians who were employed to amuse guests during an entertainment, and is some- times used to designate the anagnostae. [ANAGNOSTES.]
ACROTOL1S (attpoTToTits). In almost all Greek cities, which were usually built upon a hill, rock, or some natural elevation, there was a castle or a citadel, erected upon the highest part of the rock or hill, to which the name of Acropolis, higher or upper city, was given. Thus we read of an acropolis at Athens, Corinth, Argos, Messene, and many other places. The Capitolium at Rome answered the same purpose as the acropolis in the Greek cities ; and of the same kind were the tower of Agathocles at TJtica, and that of An- tonia at Jerusalem.
ACROSTOL'IUM (aKpocTohtov), the ex- tremity of the (jroAof. The crroAof projected from the head of the prow, and its extremity
ACT10. 3
(u/cpo<rro/lfov), which was frequently made in the shape of an animal or a helmet, &c., ap- pears to have been sometimes covered with brass, and to have served as a weapon cf offence against the enemy's vessels.
ACROTE'RIUM (u/cpur^pjov), signifies the extremity of anything, and was applied by the Greeks to the extremities of the prow of a vessel (u/cpoord/Uov), which were usually taken from a conquered vessel as a mark of victory: the act of doing so was called aitpuTr/piu&iv.
ACTA DIURNA (proceedings of the day), was a kind of gazette or newspaper publishec daily at Rome, under the authority of the government. It contained an account of the proceedings of the public assemblies, of the law courts, of the punishment of offenders, and a list of births, marriages, deaths, &c. The proceedings of the public assemblies and the law courts, were obtained by means of reporters (actuarii}. The proceedings of the senate (acta senatus) were not published till the time of Julius Caesar, but this custom was prohibited by Augustus. An account of the proceedings of the senate was still preserved, though not published, and some senator seems to have been chosen by the emperor to com- pile the account. The Acta Diurna, which were also called Acta populi, Acta publica, Acta urbana, and by the simple name of Acta, were frequently consulted and appealed to by later historians.
ACTA SENATUS. [ACTA DIURNA.]
A'CTIA (a/crm), a festival celebrated every three years at Actium in Epirus, with wrest- ling, horse-racing, and sea-fights, in honour of Apollo. There was a celebrated temple of Apollo at Actium. After the defeat of Antony oft Actium, Augustus enlarged the temple, and instituted games to be celebrated every five years in commemoration of his victory.
A'CTIO, is defined by a Roman jurist to be the right of pursuing by judicial means what is a man's due.
The old actions of the Roman law were called legis actiones orlegitimae, either because they were expressly provided for by the laws of the Twelve Tables, or because they were strictly adapted to the words of the laws, and therefore could not be varied. But these forms of action gradually fell into disuse, in conse- quence of the excessive nicety required, and the failure consequent on the slightest erroi in the pleadings, and they were eventually abolished by the Lex Aebutia, and two Leges Juliae, except in a few cases.
In the old Roman constitution, the knowl edge of the law was most closely connected with the institutes and ceremonial of religion
4 ACTiO.
and was accordingly in the hands of the pa- tricians alone, whose aid their clients were
Claudius Caecus, perhaps one of the earliest writers on law, drew up the various forms of actions, probably for his own use and that of his friends : the manuscript was stolen or copied by his scribe Cn. Flavius, who made it public ; and thus, according to the story, the plebians became acquainted with those legal forms which hitherto had been the ex- clusive property of the patricians. After the abolition of the old legal actions, a suit was prosecuted in the following manner : —
An action was commenced by the plaintiff summoning the defendant to appear before the praetor or other magistrate who had jurisdictio : this process was called in jus vocatio ; and, ac- cording to the laws of the Twelve Tables, was in effect a dragging of the defendant before the praetor, if he refused to go quietly ; and al- though this rude proceeding was somewhat modified in later times, we find in the time of Horace that if the defendant would not go quietly, the plaintiff called upon any bystander to witness, and dragged the defendant into court. The parties might settle their dispute on their way to the court, or the defendant might be bailed by a vindex. The vindex must not be confounded with the vades. This set- tlement of disputes on the way was called transact™ in via, and serves to explain a pas- sage in St. Matthew, v., 25.
When before the praetor, the parties were said jure agere. The plaintiff then prayed for an action, and if the praetor allowed it (dabat actionem), he then declared what action he in- tended to bring against the defendant, which he called edere actionem. This might be done in writing, or orally, or by the plaintiff taking the defendant to the album [A LBUM], and show- ing him which action he intended to rely on. As the formulae on the album comprehended, or were supposed to comprehend, every pos- sible form of action that could be required by a plaintiff, it was presumed that he could find among all the formulae some one which was adapted to his case ; and he was, accordingly, supposed to be without excuse if he did not take pains to select the proper formulae. If he took the wrong one, or if he claimed more than his due, he lost his cause (causa cadebat) ; but the praetor sometimes gave him leave to amend his claim or intentio. It will be ob- served that as the formulae were so numerous and comprehensive, the plaintiff had only to select the formulae which he supposed to be suitable to his case, and it would require no farther variation than the insertion of the names of the parties and of the thing claimed,
ACTIO.
or the subject-matter of the suit, with the amount of damages, &c., as the case might be.
When the praetor had granted an action, the plaintiff required the defendant to give secu- rity for his appearance before the praetor (in jure) on a day named, commonly the day but one after the in jus vocatio, unless the matter in dispute was settled at once. The defen- dant, on finding a surety, was said vades dare, vadimonium promittere, or facere ; the surety, vas, was said spondere ; the plaintiff, when satisfied with the surety,was said vadari reum, to let him go on his sureties, or to have sure- ties from him. When the defendant promised to appear in jure on the day named, without giving any surety, this was called vadimonium purum. In some cases, recuperafores [JuDEx] were named, who, in case of the defendant making default, condemned him in the sum of money named in the vadimonium.
If the defendant appeared on the day ap- pointed, he was said vadimonium sistere ; if he did not appear, he was said vadimonium dese- ruisse ; and the praetor gave to the plaintiff the bonorum possessio. Both parties, on the day appointed, were summoned by a crier (prafco), when the plaintiff made his claim or demand, which was very briefly expressed, and may be considered as corresponding to our declaration at law.
The defendant might either deny the plain- tiff's claim, or he might reply to it by a plea, exceptio. If he simply denied the plaintiff's claim, the cause was at issue, and a judex might be demanded. The forms of the excep tio, also, were contained in the praetor's edict, or, upon hearing the facts, the praetor adapt- ed the plea to the case.
The plaintiff might reply to the defendant's exceptio. The plaintiff's answer was called replicatio. If the defendant answered the re- plicatio, his answer was called duplicatio ; and the parties might go on to the triplicatio and quadruplicate, and even further, if the matters in question were such that they could not otherwise be brought to an issue.
A person might maintain or defend an ac- tion by his cognitor or procurator, or, as we should say, by his attorney. The plaintiff and defendant used a certain form of words in appointing a cognitor, and it would appear that the appointment was made in the pres- ence of both parties. The cognitor needed not to be present, and his appointment was complete when by his acts he had signified his assent.
When the cause was brought to an issue, a judex or judices might be demanded of the praetor, who named or appointed a judrx, and
ACUS.
delivered to him the formula, which contained his instructions. The judices were said dari or addici. So far the proceedings were said to be in jure: the prosecution of the actio be- fore the judex requires a -separate discussion.
[JUDEX.]
ACTOR, signified generally a plaintiff. In a civil or private action, the plaintiff'was often called petitor ; in a public action (causa pub- lica), he was called accusator. The defendant was called reus, both in private and public causes : this term, however, according to Cic- ero, might signify either party, as indeed we might conclude from the word itself. In a private action, the defendant was often called adversarius, but either party might be called adversarius with respect to the other. Wards brought their actions by their guardian or tu- tor. Peregrini, or aliens, originally brought their action through their patronus ; but af- terwards in their own name, by a fiction of law, that they were Roman citizens. A Ro- man citizen might also generally bring his action by means of a cognitor or procurator. [Acrio.]
Actor has also the sense of an agent or man- ager of another's business generally. The ac- tor publicus was an officer who had the super- intendence or care of slaves and property be- longing to the state.
ACTORS on the stage. [HisTRio.]
ACTUA'RIAE NAVES,transport-vessels, seem to have been built in a lighter style than the ordinary ships of burden, from which they also differed in being always furnished with oars, whereas the others were chiefly pro- pelled by sails.
ACTUA'RII, short-hand writers, who took down the speeches in the senate and the pub- lic assemblies. In the debate in the Roman senate upon the punishment of those who had been concerned in the conspiracy of Cat- iline, we find the first mention of short-hand writers, who were employed by Cicero to take down the speech of Cato.
ACTUS, a Roman measure of length, also called actus quadratun, was equal to half a jugerum, or 14,400 square Roman feet. The actus minimus, or simplex, was 120 feet long, and four broad, and therefore equal to 480 square Roman feet. Actus was also used to signify a bridle way.
ACUS
, /JeAovfc, /5a0tc). a needle, a pin.
Pins were made not only of metal, but also of wood, bone, and ivory. They were used for the same purposes as with us, and also in dressing the hair. The mode of platting the hair, and then fastening it with a pin or nee- dle, is shown in the annexed figure of a fe-
ADONIA. 5
male head. This fashion has been continued to our own times by the females of Italy,
Acus, Pin used to fasten the Hair.
ADDICTI. [NEXI]
ADFINES. [AFFINES.]
ADLECTI, or ALLECTI, those persons under the empire who were admitted to the privileges and honours of the praetorship, quaestorship, aedileship, and other public of- fices, without having any duties to perform. The senators called adlecti, seem to have been the same as the conscripti.
ADMISSIONA'LES, chamberlains at the imperial court, who introduced persons to the presence of the emperor. They were divided into four classes ; the chief officer of each class was called proximus admissionum ; and the proximi were under the magister admissio- num. Their duty was called officium admis- sionis. They were usually freedmen.
ADOLESCENS, was applied in the Ro- man law to a person from the end of his twelfth or fourteenth to the end of his twen- ty-fifth year, during which period a person was also called adultus. The word adoles- cens, however, is frequently used in a less strict sense in the Latin writers in referring to a person much older than the above-men- tioned age.
ADO'NIA ('A&jvm), a festival celebrated in honour of Aphrodite ( Venr.s) and Adonis in most of the Grecian cities. It lasted two days, and was celebrated by women exclusively. On the first day they brought into the streets statues of Adonis, which were laid out as corpses ; and they observed all the rites cus- tomary at funerals, beating themselves and uttering lamentations. The second day was spent in merriment and feasting; because
6 ADOPTIO.
Adonis was a lowed to return to life, and spend half the year with Aphrodite (Venus).
ADO'PTIO, adoption. 1. GREEK.— Adop- tion was called by the Athenians elfirolttff, or sometimes simply irpirjaic, or fleece adoptive father was said TroieiaOai, d a6ai, or sometimes -rroieiv : and the father or mother (for a mother after the death of her husband could consent to her son being adopt- ed) was said inTtoiclv: the son was said |/e- rroieiaOai with reference to the family which he left ; and £i£Troieta6ai with reference to the family into which he was received. The son, when adopted^ was called TroirjTOf, et£- TroirjToc, or Oerog, in opposition to the legiti- mate son born of the body of the father, who was called -yvfjOLog.
A man might adopt a son either in his life- time or by his testament, provided he had no male offspring, and was of sound mind. He might also, by testament, name a person to take his property, in case his son or sons should die under age.
Only Athenian citizens could be adopted ; but females could be adopted (by testament at least) as well as males.
The adopted child was transferred from his own family and demus into those of the adop- tive father ; he inherited his property, and maintained the sacra of his adoptive father. It was not necessary for him to take his new father's name, but he was registered as his son in the register of his phratria (typa-rpiKov •ypafj.fj.aTEiov). Subsequently to this, it was necessary to enter him in the register of the adoptive father's demus (^^lapxiKov /pa//- fiarelov), without which registration it ap- pears that he did not possess the full rights of citizenship as a member of his new demus.
2. ROMAN. — The Roman relation of parent and child arose either from a lawful marriage or from adoption. Adoptio was the general name which comprehended the tw.o species, adoptio and adrogatio ; and as the adopted person passed from his own familia into that of the person adopting, adoptio caused a capi- tis diminutio, and the lowest of the three kinds. [CAPUT.] Adoption, in its specific sense, was the ceremony by which a person who was in the power of his parent (in potes- tate parentium), whether child or grandchild, male or female, was transferred to the power of the person adopting him. It was effected under the authority of a magistrate (magistra- lus), the praetor, for instance, at Rome, or a governor (praeses), in the provinces. The person to be adopted was emancipated [MAN- ciPATioJ by his natural father before the com- petent authority, and surrendered to the adop- tive fatherby the legal form called injure ctssio.
ADULTERIUM.
When a person was not in the power of his
parent (sui juris), the ceremony of adoption
was called adrogatio. Originally, it could
only be effected at Rome, and only by a vote
I of the populus (populi auctoritate) in the comi-
I tia curiata (lege curiata) ; the reason of this
i being that the caput or status of a Roman
! citizen could not, according to the laws of the
I Twelve Tables, be effected except by a vote
j of the populus in the comitia curiata. Clo-
1 dius, the enemy of Cicero, was abrogated into
i a plebian family, in order to qualify himself to
i be elected a tribune of the plebs. Females
could not be adopted by adrogatio. Under
! the emperors it became the practice to effect
i the adrogatio by an imperial rescript.
The effect of adoption was to create the j legal relation of father and son, just as if the ' adopted son were born of the blood of the i adoptive father in lawful marriage. The adop- ted child was entitled to the name and sacra j privata of the adopting parent. A person, on j passing from one gens into another, and taking i the name of his new familia, generally retained ' the name of his old gens also, with the addi- tion to it of the termination anus. Thus ; Aemilius, the son of L. Aemilius Paullus, ! upon being adopted by P. Cornelius Scipip, I assumed the name of P. Cornelius Scipio | Aemilianus, and C. Octavius, afterwards the | emperor Augustus, upon being adopted by the ; testament of his uncle the dictator, assumed I the name of C. Julius Caesar Octavianus.
ADORA'TIO (7rpoc/cw??<7ic), adoration | was paid to the gods in the following man- I ner: — The individual stretched out his right ; hand to the statue of the god whom he wished to honour, then kissed his hand, and waved it to the statue. The adoratio differed from the oratio or prayers, supplications, which were offered with the hands folded together. The adoration paid to the Roman emperors was borrowed from the Eastern mode of adoration, and consisted in prostration on the ground, and kissing the feet and knees of the em- peror.
ADROGA'TIO. [ADOPTION.] ADULTE'RIUM, adultery. 1. GREEK. Among the Athenians, if a man caught another man in the act of criminal intercourse (fioiXEia) with his wife, he might kill him with impunity ; and the law was also the same with respect to a concubine (Tra/Ua/c/;). He might also inflict other punishment on the offender, ft appears that there was no adultery, unless a married woman was concerned. The husband might, if he pleased, take a sum of money from the adulterer, by way of compen- sation, and detain him till he found sureties for the payment. The husband might also
ADUNATI.
prosecute the adulterer in the action called uoLxeiag ypapfj. If the act of adultery was proved, the husband could no longer cohabit with his wife, under pain of losing his privi- leges of a citizen (uTifjtia). The adulteress was excluded even from those temples which foreign women and slaves were allowed to enter ; and if she was seen there, any one might treat her as he pleased, provided he did not kill her or mutilate her.
2. ROMAN. The word adulterium properly signifies, in the Roman law, the offence com- mitted by a man's having sexual intercourse with another man's wife. Stuprum (called by the Greeks pflopd) signifies the like offence with a widow or virgin.
In the time of Augustus a law was enacted (probably about B. c. 17), entitled Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis, which seems to have con- tained special penal provisions against adul- tery ; and it is also not improbable, that by the old law or custom, if the adulterer was caught in the fact, he was at the mercy of the injured husband, and that the husband might punish with death his adulterous wife.
By the Julian law, a woman convicted of adultery was mulcted in half of her dowry (dos) and the third part of her property (bona), and banished (relegata) to some miserable island, such as Seriphos, for instance. The adulterer was mulcted in half his property, and banished in like mariner. This law did not inflict the punishment of death on either party ; and in those instances under the em- perors in which death was inflicted, it must be considered as an extraordinary punishment, and beyond the provisions of the Julian law.
The Julian law permitted the father (both adoptive and natural) to kill the adulterer and adulteress in certain cases, as to which there were several nice distinctions established by the law. If the wife was divorced for adul- tery, the husband was entitled to retain part of the dowry.
By a constitution of the Emperor Constan- tine, the offence in the adulterer was made capital.
ADVERSA'RIA, a note-book, memoran- lum-book, posting-book, in which the Romans entered memoranda of any importance, espe- cially of money received and expended,which were afterwards transcribed, usually every month, into a kind of ledger. ( Tabulae justae, codex accepti et expensi.)
ADVERSA'RIUS. [ACTOR.]
ADU'NATI ('Adwaroi), were persons sup ported by the Athenian state,who, on account of infirmity or bodily defects, were unable to obtain a livelihood. The sum which they re- ceived from the state appears to have varied
AED1LES. 7
at different times. In the time of Lysias and Aristotle, one obolus a day was given ; but it appears to have been afterwards increased to two oboli. The bounty was restricted to per- sons whose property was under three minae ; and the examination of those who were en- titled to it belonged to the senate of the Five Hundred. Pisistratus is said to have been the first to introduce a law for the mainte- nance of those persons who had been muti- lated in war.
ADVOCA'TUS, seems originally to have signified any person, who gave another his aid in any affair or business, as a witness for in- stance ; or for the purpose of aiding and pro- tecting him in taking possession of a piece of property. It was also used to express a person who in any way gave his advice and aid to another in the management of a cause ; but the word did not signify the orator or patronus who made the speech in the time of Cicero Under the emperors it signified a person who in any way assisted in the conduct of a cause, and was sometimes equivalent to orator. The advocate's fee was then called Honorarium. A'DYTUM. [TEMPLUM.] AEDES. [DOMUS; TEMPLUM.] AEDI'LES CAyopavo/uoi). The name of these functionaries is said to be derived from their having the care of the temple (aedes) of Ceres. The aediles were originally two in number ; they were elected from the plebs, and the institution of the office dates from the same time as that of the tribunes of the plebs, B. c. 494. Their duties at first seem to have been merely ministerial ; they were the assistants of the tribunes in such matters as the tribunes entrusted to them, among which are enumerated the hearing of causes of smaller importance. At an early period after their institution (B. c. 446), we find them appointed the keepers of the senatus-consulta, which the consuls had hitherto arbitrarily suppressed or altered. They were also the keepers of the plebiscita. Other functions were gradually entrusted to them, and it is not always easy to distinguish their duties from some of those which belong to the cen- sors. They had the general superintendence of buildings, both sacred and private ; under this power they provided for the support and repair of temples, curiae, &c., and took care that private buildings,which were in a ruinous state were repaired by the owners or pulled down. The care of the streets and pave- ments, with the cleansing and draining of the city, belonged to the aediles , and, of course, the care of the cloacae. They had the office of distributing corn among the plebs, but this distribution of corn at Rome must not be con-
AEDILES.
founded with the duty of purchasing or pro- curing it from foreign parts, which was per- formed b> the consuls, quaestors, and praetors, and sometimes by an extraordinary magistrate, as the praefectus annonae.
The aediles had to see that the public lands were not improperly used, and that the pas- ture grounds of the state were not trespassed on ; and they had power to punish by fine any unlawful act in this respect. They had a general superintendence over buying and sel- ling, and, as a consequence, the supervision of the markets, of things exposed to sale, such as slaves, and of weights and measures ; from this part of their duty is derived the name under which the aediles are mentioned by the Greek writers (ayopavo/Aoi). It was their business to see that no new deities or religious rites were introduced into the city, to look after the observance of religious cere- monies, and the celebration of the ancient feasts and festivals. The general superinten- dence of police comprehended the duty of preserving order, regard to decency, and the inspection of the baths and houses of enter- tainment. The aediles had various officers under them, as praecones, scribae, and via- tores.
The AEDILES CURULES, who were also two in number, were originally chosen only from the patricians, afterwards alternately from the patricians and the plebs, and at last indifferently from both. The office of curule aediles was instituted B. c. 365, and, accord- ing to Livy, on the occasion of the plebeian aediles refusing to consent to celebrate the Ludi Maximi for the space of four days in- stead of three ; upon which a senatus-con- sultum was passed, by which two aediles were to be chosen from the patricians. From this time four aediles, two plebeian and two curule, were annually elected. The distinc- tive honours of the curule aediles were, the sella curulis, from whence their title is de- rived, the toga praetexta, precedence in speak- ing in the senate, and the jus imaginis. The curule aediles only had the jus edicendi. or the right of promulgating edicta • but the rules comprised in their edicta sened for the guidance of all the aediles. The edicta of the curule aediles were founded on their au- thority as superintendents of the markets, and of buying and selling in general. Ac- cordingly, their edicts had mainly, or perhaps solely, reference to the rules as to buying and selling, and contracts for bargain and sale. The persons both of the plebeian and curule aediles were sacrosancti.
It seems that after the appointment of the curule aediles, the functions formerly exer-
AEDILES.
cised by the plebeian aediles were exercised, with some few exceptions, by all the aediles indifferently. Within rive days after being elected, or entering on office, they were re- quired to determine by lot, or by agreement among themselves, what parts of the city each should take under his superintendence ; and each aedile alone had the care of looking alter the paving and cleansing of the streets, and other matters, it may be presumed, of the same local character within his district. The other duties of the office seem to have been exercised by them jointly.
In the superintendence of the public festi vals or solemnities, there was a further dis tinction between the two sets of aediles Many of these festivals, such as those pj Flora and Ceres, were superintended b- either set of aediles indifferently ; but th( plebeian games were under the superinten dence of the plebeian aediles, who had a: allowance of money for that purpose; ant the fines levied on the pecuarii, and others seem to have been appropriated to these among other public purposes. The celebra- tion of the Ludi Magni or Romani, of the Ludi Scenici, or dramatic representations, and the Ludi Megalesii, belonged specially to the curule aediles, and it was on such oc- casions that they often incurred a prodigious expense, with a view of pleasing the people, and securing their votes in future elections. This extravagant expenditure of the aediles arose after the close of the second Punic war, and increased with the opportunities which individuals had of enriching themselves after the Roman arms were carried into Greece, Africa, and Spain. Even the prodigality of the emperors hardly surpassed that of indi- vidual curule aediles under the republic; such as C. Julius Caesar, the dictator, P. Cor- nelius Lentulus Spinther, and, above all, M. Aemilius Scaurus, whose expenditure was not limited to bare show, but comprehended objects of public utility, as the reparation of walls, dock-yards, port's, and aqueducts.
In B. c. 45, Julius Caasar caused two curule aediles and four plebeian aediles to be elect ed ; and thenceforward, at least so long as the office of aedile was of any importance, six aediles were annually elected. The two new plebeian aediles were called Cereales, and their duty was to look after a supply of corn. Though their office may not have been of any great importance after the institution of a praefectus annonae by Augustus, there is no doubt that it existed for several centuries, and at least as late as the time of the emperoi Gordian.
The aediles belonged to the class of th?
AEDILES.
minores magistratus. The plebeian aediles were originally chosen at the cornitia centu- riata, but afterwards at the comitia tributa, in which cornitia the curule aediles also were chosen. It appears that until the lex annalis was passed (B. c. 180) a Roman citi- zen might be a candidate for any office after completing his twenty-seventh year. This law fixed the age at which each office might be enjoyed, and it seems that the age fixed for the aedileship was thirty-seven.
The aediles existed under the emperors ; but their powers were gradually diminished, and their functions exercised by new officers created by the emperors. After the battle of Actium, Augustus appointed a Praefectus urbi, who exercised the general police, which had formerly been one of the duties of the aediles. Augustus also took from the aediles, or exercised himself, the office of superin- tending the religious rites, and the banishing from the city of all foreign ceremonials ; he also assumed the superintendence of the tem- ples, and thus may be said to have destroyed the aedileship by depriving it of its old and original function. The last recorded instance of the splendours of the aedileship is the ad- ministration of Agrippa, who volunteered to take the office, and repaired all the public buildings and all the roads at his own ex- pense, without drawing anything from the treasury. The aedileship had, however, lost its true character before this time. Agrippa
AEGIS. &
had already been consul before be accepted the office of aedile, and his munificent expen- diture in this nominal office was the close of the splendour of the aedileship. Augustus appointed the curule aediles specially to the office of putting out fires, and placed a body of 600 slaves at their command ; but the prae fecti vigilum afterwards performed this duty They retained, under the early emperors, a kind of police, for the purpose of repressing open licentiousness and disorder. The colo- niae, and the municipia of the later period, had also their aediles, whose numbers and functions varied in different places. They seem, however, as to their powers and duties, to have resembled the aediles of Rome. They were chosen annually.
AEDI'TUI, AEDI'TUMI, -AEDITIMI (called by the Greeks veuitopoi, t^dicopot, and vTro&Kopoi), were persons who took care of the temples, attended to the cleaning of them, &c. They appear to have lived in the tem- ples, or near them, and to have acted as cice- roni to those persons who wished to see them. Subsequently among the Greeks, the menial services connected with this office were left to slaves, and the persons called neocori became priestly officers of high rank, who had the chief superintendence of tem- ples, their treasures, and the sacred rites ob served in them.
AEGIS (A/yt'f) signifies, literally, a goat- skin.
Tbe Aegia u worn by Athena (Minerva).
JO
AERA.
According to ancient mythology, the aegis worn by Jupiter was the hide of the goat Amal- theia, which had suckled him in his infancy. Homer always represents it as part of the armour of Jupiter, whom on this account he distinguishes by the epithet aegis-bearing (aiyioxos). He, however, asserts, that it was borrowed on different occasions, both by Apollo and Minerva.
The aegis was connected with the shield of Jupiter, either serving as a covering over it, or as a belt by which it was suspended from the right shoulder. Homer accordingly uses the word to denote not only the goat-skin, which it properly signified, but also the shield to which it belonged.
The aegis was adorned in a style corre- sponding to the might and majesty of the father of the gods. In the middle of it was fixed the appalling Gorgon's head, and its border was surrounded with golden tassels (Ovaavoi), each of which was worth a heca- tomb.
The aegis is usually seen on the statues of Minerva, in which it is a sort of scarf falling jbliquely over the right shoulder, so as to pass round the body under the left arm. The serpents of the Gorgon's head are transferred ,o the border of the skin. (See the left-hand figure in the cut.) The later poets and ar- tists represent the aegis as a breastplate cov- ered with metal in the form of scales. (See the right-hand figure.)
AENEATO'RES, were those who blew upon wind instruments in the Roman arrny ; namely, the buccinatores, comtctnev, and tubi- cines. They were also employed in the pub- lic games.
AEOLIP'YL^E (uio'Aov irvTiac) were, ac- cording to the description of Vitruvius, hol- low vessels made of brass, which were used in explaining the origin. &c. of the winds. These vessels, which had a very small orifice, were filled with water and placed on the fire, by which, of course, steam was created.
AERA, a point of time from which subse- quent or preceding years may be counted. The Greeks had no common aera till a com- paratively late period.
The Athenians reckoned their years by the name of the chief archon of each year, whence he was called archon eponymus (up^uv eTru- vvnog) ; the Lacedaemonians by one of the ephors, and the Argives by the chief priestess of Juno, who held her office for life.
The following aeras were adopted in later times: — 1. the aera of the Trojan war (B.C. 1184), which was first made use of by Eratos- ihenes. — 2. the Olympic aera, which began B. c. 776, — 3. the Philippic or Alexandrian
AERARIUM.
aera, which began B. c. 323. — 4. the aera of the Seleucidae, which began in the autumn of B. c. 312. — 5. the aeras of Antioch, of which there were three, but the one in most com mon use began in November, B. c. 49.
The Romans reckoned their years from the foundation of the city (ab urbe condita), in the time of Augustus and subsequently ; but in earlier times the years were reckoned by the names of the consuls. We also find traces of an aera from the banishment of the kings ; and of another from the taking of the city by the Gauls. The date of the foundation of Rome is given differently by different authors. That which is most commonly followed is the one given by Varro, which corresponds to B. c. 753. It must be observed, that 753 A. u. c. is the first year before, and 754 A. u. c. the first year after the Christian aera. To find out the year B. c. corresponding to the year A. u. c., subtract the year A. u. c. from 754 ; thus, 605 A. u. c.=:149 B. o. To find out the year A. D., corresponding to the year A. u. c., subtract 753 from the year A. u. c. ; thus, 767
A. U. C.= 14 A. D.
- AERA'RII, those citizens of Rome who did not enjoy the perfect franchise, i. e. those who corresponded to the isoteles and atimi at Athens. The name is a regular adjective formed from aes (bronze), and its application to this particular class is due to the circum- stance that, as the aerarii were protected by the state without being bound to military ser- vice, they naturally had to pay the aes militare, which was thus originally a charge on them. The persons who constituted this class were either the inhabitants of other towns which had a relation of isopolity with Rome (the in- quilini), or clients and the descendants of freedmen. The decemvirs enrolled in the tribes all who were aerarians at that time: and when the tribes comprised the whole na- tion, the degradation of a citizen to the rank of an aeranan (which was called atrarium fa- cere ', referre aliquem in aerarios ; 01 in tabulas Caeritum referri jubere), might be practised in the case of a patrician as well as of a plebeian. Hence, .aerarians came to be used as a term of reproach. Respecting the Tribuni Aerarii, see TRIBUNUS.
AERA'RlUM,the public treasury at Rome. After the banishment of the kings, the temple of Saturn was used as the place for keeping the public treasure, and it continued to be so till the later times of the empire. Besides the public money, the standards of the le- gions were deposited in the aerarium, and also all decrees of the senate were entered there in books kept for the purpose.
The aerarium was divided into two parts !
AES.
the common treasury, in which were deposited the regular taxes, and which was made use of to meet the ordinary expenditure of the 8tate ; and the sacred treasury (aerarium sanc- tum, sanctius), which was never touched ex cept in cases of extreme peril. The twen- tieth part of the value of every slave who was enfranchised, and some part of the plunder of conquered nations, were deposited in the sa- cred treasury. Augustus established a sep- arate treasury under the name of aerarium militare, to provide for the pay and support of the army ; and he imposed several new taxes for that purpose.
The aerarium, the public treasury, must be distinguished from thefiscus, the treasury of the emperors. [Fiscus.]
The charge of the treasury was originally entrusted to the quaestors and their assistants, the tribuni aerarii ; but in B. c. 49, when no quaestors were elected, it was transferred to the aediles, in whose care it appears to have been till B. c. 28, when Augustus gave it to the praetors, or those who had been praetors. Various changes were made by the early em- perors, as to the charge of the aerarium, but it was eventually entrusted to officers, called praefects, who appear to have held their office lor two years.
AERUSCATO'RES, were vagrants who obtained their living by fortune-telling and begging. They were called by the Greeks ayvprat.
AES (j^aA/coc), properly signifies a com- pound ot copper and tin, corresponding to what we call bronze. It is incorrect to trans- late it brass, which is a combination of cop- per and zinc, since all the specimens, of an- cient objects, formed of the material called aes, are found upon analysis to contain no zinc.
The employment of aes was very general among the ancients ; money, vases, and uten- sils of all sorts, being made of it. All the most ancient coins in Rome and the old Ital- ian states were made of aes, and hence mo- ney in general was called by this name. For the same reason we have aes alienum, mean- ing debt, and aera in the plural, pay to the soldiers. The Romans had no other coinage except bronze or copper (aes), till B. c. 269, five years before the first Punic war, when silver was first coined ; gold was not coined till sixty-two years after silver.
The first coinage of aes is usually attributed to Servius Tullius, who is said to have stamp- ed the money with the image of cattle (pecus), whence it is called pecunia. According to some accounts, it was coined from the com- •nencement of the city, and we know that the
AES UXOR1UM. U
old Italian states possessed a bronze or cop- per coinage from the earliest times.
The first coinage was the as [As], which originally was a pound weight ; but as in course of time the weight of the as was re- duced not only in Rome, but in the other Ital- ian states, and this reduction of weight was not uniform in the different states, it became usual in all bargains to pay the asses accord- ing to their weight, and not according to their nominal value. The aes grave was not the old heavy coins as distinguished from the lighter modern ; but it signified any number of copper coins reckoned according to the old style, by weight. There was, therefore, no occasion for the state to suppress the circulation of the old copper coins, since in all bargains the asses were not reckoned by tale, but by weight.
Bronze or copper (^;aA/c6c) was very little used by the Greeks for money in early times. Silver was originally the universal currency, and copper appears to have been seldom coin- ed till after the time of Alexander the Great. The copper coin was called Chalcous (%a^- /covf). The smallest silver coin at Athens was the quarter-obol, and the chalcous was the half of that, or the eighth of an obol. In later times, the obol was coined of copperas well as silver.
AES CIRCUMFORA'NEUM, money borrowed from the Roman bankers (argenta- rii), who had shops in porticoes round the forum.
AES EQTTESTRE, the sum of money given by the Roman state for the purchase of the knight's horse. This sum amounted to 10,000 asses.
AES HORDEA'RIUM, or HORDIA'- RIUM, the sum of money paid yearly for the keep of a knight's horse ; in other words, a knight's pay. This suui, which amounted to 2000 asses for each horse, was charged upon the rich widows and orphans, on the princi- ple that, in a military state, the women and children ought to contribute largely for those who fought in behalf of them and the com- monwealth.
AES MILITA'RE. [AERARII.]
AES MANUA'RIUMwas the money won in playing with dice, manibus collectum. Ma- nus was the throw in the game. All who threw certain numbers were obliged to put down a piece of money ; and whoever threw the Venus (the highest throw) won the whole sum, which was called the aes manuarium.
AES UXO'RIUM, was a tax paid by per sons who lived as bachelors. It was first imposed by the censors in B. c. 403. Various penalties were imposed by Augustus
i AGASO.
nose who lived in a state of celibacy, and .avantages granted to those who were mar- ried and had children. [Lex JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA.]
AESYMNE'TES (Aftnyn^Tft), a person who was sometimes invested with unlimited power in the Greek states. His power par- took in some degree of the nature both of kingly and tyrannical authority ; since he was appointed legally, and did not usurp the gov- ernment, but at the same time was not bound by any laws in his public administration. The office was not hereditary, nor was it held for life ; but it only continued for a limited time, or till some object was accomplished. Thus we read that the inhabitants of Mytilene appointed Pittacus aesymnetes, in order to prevent the return of Alcaeus and the other exiles. Dionysius compares it with the dic- tatorship of Rome. In some states, such as Cyme and Chalcedon, it was the title borne by the regular magistrates.
AFFI'NES, AFFI'NITAS, or ADFI'NES, ADFI'NITAS. Affines are the cognati [Coo- NATI] of husband and wife, the cognati of the husband becoming the affines of the wife, and the cognati of the wife the affines of the hus- band. The father of a husband is the socer of the husband's wife, and the father of a wife is the socer of the wife's husband. The term socrus expresses the same affinity with respect to the husband's and wife's mothers. A son's wife is nurus, or daughter-in-law to the son's parents ; a wife's husband is gener, or son-in- law to the wife's parents.
Thus the avus, avia — pater, mater — of the wife became by the marriage respectively the socer magnus, prosocrus, or socrus magna — socer, socrus — of the husband, who becomes with respect to them severally progener and gener. In like manner the corresponding ancestors of the husband respectively assume the same names with respect to the son's wife, who becomes with respect to them pronurus and nurus. The son and daughter of a husband or wife born of a prior marriage are called privignus and privigna, with respect to their step-father or step-mother ; and with respect to such children the step-father and step-mo- ther are severally called vitricus and noverca. The husband's brother becomes levir with re- spect to the wife, and his sister becomes glos (the Greek ya/U>f). Marriage was unlawful among persons who had become such affines as above mentioned.
AGALMA (dyaA/za), is a general name for a statue or image to represent a god.
AGA'SO, a groom, whose business it was to take care of the horses. The word is also used for a driver of beasts of burdei and is
AGER PUBLICTJS.
sometimes applied to a slave who had to per* form the lowest mental duties.
AGATHOERGI (' AyafloepyoO- In time of war the kings of Sparta had a body-guard of three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan youths (/TTTretf), of whom the five eldest re- tired every year, and were employed for one year under the name of Agathoergi, in missions to foreign states.
AGE'MA (ayr)(j.a fromdyw), the name of a chosen body of troops in the Macedonian army, usually consisting of horsemen.
AGER PU'BLICUS, the public land, was the land belonging to the Roman state. It was a recognised principle among the Italian nations that the territory of a conquered peo- ple belonged to the conquerors. Accordingly, the Romans were constantly acquiring fresh territory by the conquest of the surrounding people. The land thus acquired was usually disposed of in the following way. 1. The land which was under cultivation was either dis- tributed among colonists, who were sent to occupy it, or it was sold, or it was let out to farm. 2. The land which was then out of cultivation, and which, owing to war, was by far the greater part, might be occupied by any of the Roman citizens on the payment of a portion of the yearly produce ; a tenth of the produce of arable land, and a fifth of the produce of the land planted with the vine, the olive, and other valuable trees. 3. The land which had previously served as the common pasture land of the conquered state, or was suitable for the purpose, continued to be used as pasture land for the use of the Roman cit- izens, who had, however, to pay a certain sum of money for the cattle which they turn- ed upon the land.
The occupation of the public land spoken of above under the second head was always expressed by the words possessio and possidere, and the occupier of the land was called the possessor. The land continued to be the pro- perty of the state ; and accordingly we must distinguish between the terms possessio, which merely indicated the use or enjoyment of the land, and dominium, which expressed ownership, and was applied to private land, of which a man had the absolute ownership. The right of occupying the public land be- longed only to citizens, and consequently only to the patricians originally, as they were the state. The plebeians were only subjects, and consequently had no right to the property of the state ; but it is probable that they were permitted to feed their cattle on the public pasture lands. Even when the plebeians be- came a separate estate by the constitution of Servius Tullius, they still obtained no right
AGER PUBLICUS.
to share in the possession of the public land, which continued to be the exclusive privilege of the patricians ; but as a compensation, each individual plebeian received an assignment of a certain quantity of the public land as his own property. Henceforth the possession of the public land was the privilege of the patricians, and an assignment of a portion of it the priv- ilege of the plebeians. As the state acquired new lands by conquest, the plebeians ought to have received assignments of part of them ; but since the patricians were the governing body, they generally refused to make any such assignment, and continued to keep the whole as part of the ager publicus, whereby the en- joyment of it belonged to them alone. -Hence, we constantly read of the plebeians claiming, and sometimes enforcing, a division of such .and.
With the extension of the conquests of Rome, the ager publicus constantly increased, and thus a large portion of Italy fell into the hands of the patricians ; who frequently with- held from the state the annual payments of a tenth and a fifth, which they were bound to pay for the possession of the land, and thus deprived the state of a fund for the expenses of the war. In addition to which they used slaves as cultivators and shepherds, since freemen were liable to be drawn off from field- labour to military service, arid slave-labour was consequently far cheaper. In this way the number of free labourers diminished, and that of slaves was augmented.
To remedy this state of things several laws were from time to time proposed and carried, which were most violently opposed by the patricians. All laws which related to the public land, are called by the general title of Leges Agrariae, and accordingly all the early laws relating to the possession of the public land by the patricians, and to the assignment of portions of it to the plebeians, were strictly agrarian laws ; but the first law to which this name is usually applied, was proposed soon after the establishment of the republic by the consul Sp. Cassius in B. c. 486. Its object was to set apart the portion of the public land which the patricians were to possess, to di- vide the rest among the plebeians, to levy the payment due for the possession, and to apply it to paying the army. The first law, how- ever, which really deprived the patricians of the advantages they had previously enjoyed in the occupation of the public land was the agrarian law of C. Licinius Stolo (B. c. 366), which limited each individual's possession of public land to 500 jugera, and declared that no individual should have above 100 large and 500 smaller cattle on the public pastures : it B
AGONOTHETAtf. i<
farther enacted that the surplus land was to be dividea among the plebeians. As this law, however,was soon disregarded, it was revived again by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (B. c. 133), with some alterations and additions. The de- tails of the other agrarian laws, mentioned in Roman history, are given under the name of the lex by which they are called. [LEX.]
AGGER (^(j//a), from ad and gero, was used in general for a heap or mound of any kind. It was more particularly applied : —
1. To a mound, usually composed of earth, which was raised round a besieged town, and which was gradually increased in breadth and height, till it equalled or overtopped the walls. The agger was sometimes made not only of earth, but of wood, hurdles, &c. ; whence we read of the agger being set on fire.
2. To the earthen wall surrounding a Roman encampment, composed of the earth dug from the ditch (fossa), which was usually 9 feet broad and 7 feet deep ; but if any attack was apprehended, the depth was increased to 12 feet and the breadth to 13 feet. Sharp stakes, &c. were usually fixed upon the agger,which was then called vallum. When both words are used, the agger means the mound of earth, and the vallum the stakes, &c. which were fixed upon the agger.
AGITATO'RES. [CIRCUS.]
AGMEN, the marching order of the Roman army. The form of the army on march dif- fered according to circumstances and the na- ture of the ground. An agmen pilalum was an army in close array ; an agmen quadratum was an army arranged in the form of a square, with the baggage in the middle.
AGNA'TI. [COGNATI.]
AGNO'MEN! [NoMEN.]
AGONA'LIA or AGO'NIA, a Roman festi- val instituted by Numa Pompilius, in honour of Janus, and celebrated on the 9th of Janu- ary, the 20th of May, and the 10th of Decem- ber. The morning of these festivals, or, at least, the morning of the 10th of December, was considered a dies nefastus. The etymo- logy of this name was differently explained by the ancients ; some derived it from Agonius, a surname of Janus ; some from the word agone, because the attendant, whose duty it wars to sacrifice the victim, could not do so till he had asked the rex sacrificulus, Agone ? and others from agonia, because the victims were formerly called by that name.
AGONO'THETAE (fauvodtrai), persons in the Grecian games, who decided disputes, and adjudged the prizes to the victors. Origi- nally, the person who instituted the contest, and offered the prize, was the Agonothetes, and this continued to be the practic* \n thos*
14
AGORANOMI.
games which were instituted by kings or pri- vate persons. But in the great public games, such as the Isthmian, Pythian, &c., the Agono- thetae were either the representatives of dif- ferent states, as the Amphictyons at the Pythian games, or were chosen from the people in whose country the games were celebrated. During the flourishing times of fhe Grecian republics, the Eleans were the Agonothetae in the Olympic games, the Corin- thians in the Isthmian games, the Amphic- tyons in the Pythian games, and the Corin- thians, Argives, and inhabitants of Cleonae in the Nernean games. The Agonothetae were also called Aesymnetae (alav/LtviJTai), Agonar- chae (ay&waprai), Agonodicae (ayuvodtKai), Athlothetae (uOXodsTat), Rhabduchi (pa/3dov- %oi), or Rhabdonomi (pa[3dov6/J.oi, from the staff' they carried as an emblem of authority), Brabeis (Spafletg), Brabeutae (dpaflevrai).
A'GORA (dvopd) properly means an assem- bly of any kind, and is usually employed by Homer to designate the general assembly of the people. The Agora seems to have been considered an essential part of the constitution of the early Grecian states. It was usually convoked by the king, but occasionally by some distinguished chieftain, as, for example, by Achilles before Troy. The king occupied the most important seat in these assemblies, and near him sat the nobles, while the people stood or sat in a circle around them. The people appear to have had no right of speak- ing or voting in these assemblies, but merely to have been called together to hear what had been already agreed upon in the council of the nobles, and to express their feelings as a oody. The council of the nobles is called Boule((3ov2,ij) zndThodcus (0dw/coc), and some- times even Agora.
Among the Athenians, the proper name for the assembly of the people was Ecdesia (iKKhrjaia), and among the Dorians Halia (d/Ua). The term Agora was confined at Athens to the assemblies of the phylae and demi.
The name Agora was early transferred from the assembly itself to the place in which the assembly was held ; and thus it came to be used fof the market-place, where goods of all descriptions were bought and sold. The ex- pression agora plethousa (dyopd Trhijdovaa), " full market," was used to signify the time from morning to noon, that is, from about nine to twelve o'clock.
AGORA'NOMI (a-yopavofioi), public func- tionaries in most 01 the Grecian states,whose duties corresponded in many respects with those of the Roman aediles. At Athens their number was ten, five for the city, and five
AGROTERAS THUSIA.
for the Peiraeeus, and they were chosen by lot.
The principal duty of the Agoranomi was, as their name imports, to inspect the market, and to see that all the laws respecting its regulation were properly observed. They had the inspection of all things that were sold in the market, with the exception of corn, which was subject to the jurisdiction of special officers, called Sitophylaces
c). R
AGRARIAN LAWS. [AGER PUBLICUS ; LEX.]
AGRAU'LIA (dypc^ua), was a festival celebrated by the Athenians in honour of Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops. It was perhaps connected with the solemn oath, which all Athenians, when they arrived at manhood (t+q8ot\ were obliged to take in the temple of Agraulos, that they would fight for their country, and always observe its laws.
AGRIMENSO'RES, or " land surveyors," a college established under the Roman em- perors. Like the jurisconsults, they had regular schools, and were paid handsome salaries by the state. Their business was to measure unassigned lands for the state, and ordinary lands for the proprietors, and to fix and maintain boundaries. Their writings on the subject of their art were very numerous ; and we have still scientific treatises on the law of boundaries, such as those by Frontinus and Hyginus.
AGRIO'NIA ('Ayp«jv£a), a festival which was celebrated at Orchomenus, in Boeotia, in honour of Bacchus, surnamed Agrionius. A human being used originally to be sacrificed at this festival, but this sacrifice seems to have been avoided in later times. One instance, however, occurred in the days of Plutarch.
AGRO'NOMI (cLjpov6fj.oC), the country-po- lice, probably in Attica, whose duties corre- sponded in most respects to those of the asty nomi in the city, and who appear to have per- formed nearly the same duties as the hylori (vhupot).
AGRO'TERAS THU'SIA ('Ayporepaf f)vaia), a festival celebrated every year at 'Athens in honour of Diana, surnamed Agro- tera (from dypa, the chase). It was solemn- ized on the sixth of the month of Boedromion, and consisted in a sacrifice of 500 goats, which continued to be offered in the time of Xeno- phon. Its origin is thus related : — When the Persians invaded Attica, the Athenians made a vow to sacrifice to Artemis (Diana) Agrotera as many goats as there should be enemies slain at Marathon. But when the number of ene- mies slain was so great that an equal nu,mbflr
ALAUDA.
of goats could not be found at once, the Ath- enians decreed that 500 should be sacrificed every year.
AISUMNE'TES (olov^r^f), an individ- ual, who was sometimes invested with unlim- ited power by the Greek states. His power, according to Aristotle, partook in some degree of the nature both of kingly and tyrannical authority, since he was appointed legally, and did not usurp the government, but at the same time was not bound by any laws in his public administration. The office was not heredita- ry, nor was it held for life, but it only contin- ued for a certain time, or until some particu- lar object was accomplished. Dionysius com- pares it with the dictatorship of the Romans.
ALABASTER or ALABASTRUM, a ves- sel or pot used for containing perfumes, or rather ointments, made of that species of marble which mineralogists call gypsum, and which is usually designated by the name of alabaster. When varieties of colour occur in the same stone, and are disposed in bands or horizontal strata, it is often called onyx ala- baster ; and when dispersed irregularly, as if in clouds, it is distinguished as agate alabns- ter. The term seems to have been employed to denote vessels appropriated to these uses, even when they were not made of the material from which it is supposed they originally re- ceived their name. Theocritus thus speaks of golden alabastra. These vessels were of a tapering shape, and very often had a long narrow neck, which was sealed ; so that when Mary, the sister of Lazarus, is said by St. Mark to break the alabaster box of ointment for the purpose of anointing our Saviour, it appears probable that she only broke the ex- tremity of the neck, which was thus closed.
ALA, ALA'RII. The troops of the allies in the Roman army were called Aiarii, because they were usually stationed on the two wings (alae), and each of these two divisions of the allied troops was called an Ala. The alarii consisted both of horse and foot soldiers, and were commanded by praefecti, in the same manner as the legions were commanded by tribuni. The cavalry of the allies was called equites alarii, to distinguish them from the cavalry of trie legions (equites legionarii), and the infantry was called cohortes alariae, to dis- tinguish them from the cohortes legionariae. Under the empire the word Ala was applied to a regiment of cavalry, which usually con- sisted of 500 men.
ALAUDA, the name of a legion which Caesar levied in Cisalpine Gaul, and organ- ized at his own expense during his Gallic wars. He afterwards gave the Roman citizen- ship to the soldiers of this legion. The soldiers
AL1PTAE.
15
themselves were also called Alaudae, whence Cicero speaks of the legio Alaudarum and of Alaudae ceterique veterani. The legion was called Alauda or " lark," from the form of the crests which the soldiers wore on their helmets.
ALBUM, a tablet of any material on which the praetor's edicts, and the rules relating to actions and interdicts, were written. The tablet was put in a public place, in order that all the world might have notice of its contents. According to some authorities, the album was so called, because it was either a white mate- rial, or a material whitened, and of course the writing would be a different colour. Accord- ing to other authorities, it was so called be cause the writing was in white letters.
Probably the word album originally meant any tablet containing anything of a public na- ture. We know that it was, in course of time, used to signify a list of any public body ; thus we find album judicum, or the body out of which judices were to be chosen [JuDEx], and album senatorium, or list of senators.
A'LEA, gaming, or playing at a game of chance of any kind. Hence aleo, aleator, a gamester, a gambler. Playing with tali, or tesserae, was generally understood, because this was by far the most common game of chance among the Romans.
Gaming was forbidden by the Roman laws, both during the times of the republic and under the emperors, but was tolerated in the month of December at the Saturnalia, which was a period of general relaxation ; and old men were allowed to amuse themselves in this manner at all times.
AL1PTAE (afolTTTai), among the Greeks, were persons who anointed the bodies of the athletae preparatory to their entering the pa- laestra. The chief object of this anointing was to close the pores of the body, in order to prevent much perspiration, and the weak- ness consequent thereon. The athleta was again anointed after the contest, in order to restore the tone of the strained muscles. He then bathed, and had the dust, sweat, and oil scraped off his body, by means of an instru- ment similar to the strigil of the Romans, and called stlengis (or/ley Tif)» an^ afterwards xys- tra (Zvarpa). The aliptae took advantage of the knowledge they necessarily acquired of the state of the muscles of the athletae, and their general strength or weakness of body, to advise them as to their exercises and mode of life. They were thus a kind of medi- cal trainers.
Among the Romans, the aliptae were slaves who scrubbed and anointed their masters in the baths. They, too, like the Greek aliptae
16 AMBITUS.
appear to have attended to their masters' con- stitution and mode of life. They were also called unctores. They used in their operations a kind of scraper called strigil, towels (lintea), a cruise of oil (guttus), which was usually of horn, a bottle (ampulla), and a small vessel called lenticula.
ALLIES of the Romans. [Soon.]
ALTARS. [ARA.]
ALTA'RE. [ARA.]
ALU'TA. [CALCEUS.]
ALYTAE ('A/lvraO, persons whose busi- ness it was to keep order in the public games. They received their orders from an alytarches (uhvTdpxqc), who was himself under the di- rection of the agonothetae, or hellanodicae.
AMANUENSIS, or AD MANUM SER- VUS, a slave, or freedman, whose office it was to write letters and other things under his master's direction.
The amanuenses must not be confounded with another sort of slaves, also called ad ma- num servi, who were always kept ready to be employed in any business.
AMARY'NTHIA, or AMARY'SIA ('A^a- pvvOia or 'Afiapvaia), a festival of Artemis (Diana) Amarynthia. or Amarysia, celebrated as it seems, originally at Amarynthus in Eu- boea, with extraordinary splendour, but also solemnized in several places in Attica, such as Athmone.
AMBARVA'LIA. [ARAVALES FRATRES.]
AMBASSADORS. [LEGATUS.]
A'MBITUS, which literally signifies "a going about," cannot, perhaps, be more nearly expressed than by our word canvassing. After the plebs had formed a distinct class at Rome, and when the whole body of the citizens had become very greatly increased, we frequently read, in the Roman writers, of the great efforts which it was necessary for candidates to make in order to secure the votes of the citizens. At Rome, as in every community into which the element of popular election enters, solici- tation of votes, and open or secret influence and bribery, were among the means by which a candidate secured his election to the offices of state. The following are the principal terms occurring in the Roman writers in relation to the canvassing for the public offices : — A can- didate was called petitor • and his opponent with reference to him competitor. A candidate (candidatus) was so called from his appearing in public places, such as the fora and Campus Martius, before his fellow citizens, in a whitened toga. On such occasions the can- didate was attended by his friends (deductores), or followed by the poorer citizens (sectatores), who could in no other manner show their good will or give their assistance. The word
AMBITUS.
| assiduitas expressed both the continual pres- : ence of the candidate at Rome and his con- | tinual solicitations. The candidate, in going I his rounds or taking his walk, was accom panied by a nomenclator, who gave him the names of such persons as he might meet ; the candidate was thus enabled to address them by their name, an indirect compliment, which could not fail to be generally gratifying to the electors. The candidate accompanied his ad- dress with a shake of the hand (prensatio). The term benignitas comprehended generally any kind of treating, as shows, feasts, &c.
The ambitus, which was the object of sev- eral penal enactments, taken as a generic term, comprehended the two species, — ambi- tus and largitiones (bribery). Liberalitas and benignitas are opposed by Cicero, as things allowable, to ambitus and largitio, as things illegal. Money was paid for votes ; and in order to insure secrecy and secure the elector, persons called interpretes were employed to make the bargain, sequestres to hold the mo- ney till it was to be paid, and divisores to dis- tribute it. The offence of ambitus was a mat- ter which belonged to the judicia publica, and the enactments against it were numerous. One of the earliest, though not the earliest of all, the Lex Cornelia Baebia (B. c. 181) was specially directed against largitiones. The Lex Cornelia Fulvia (B. c. 159) punished the offence with exile. The Lex Acilia Calpur- nia (B. c. 67) imposed a fine on the offending party, with exclusion from the senate and all public offices. The Lex Tullia (B. c. 63), passed in the consulship of Cicero, in addition to the penalty of the Acilian law, inflicted ten years' exsilium on the offender ; and, among other things, forbade a person to exhibit gladi- atorial shows (gladiatores dare) within any two years in which he was a candidate, un- less he was required to do so, on a fixed day, by a testator's will. Two years afterwards, the Lex Aufidia was passed, by which, among other things, it was provided that, if a candi- date promised (pronuntiavit) money to a tribe, and did not pay it, he should be unpunished ; but, if he did pay the money, he should fur- ther pay to each tribe (annually ?) 3000 sester- ces as long as he lived. This enactment oc- casioned the witticisms of Cicero, who said that Clodius observed this law by anticipa- tion ; for he promised, but did not pay. The Lex Licinia (B. c. 58) was specially directed against the offence of sodalitium, or the whole- sale bribery of a tribe by gifts and treating ; and another lex, passed (B. c. 52), when Pom pey was sole consul, had for its object the es tablishment of a speedier course of proceed ing on trials for ambitus All these enact
AMENTUM.
merits failed in completely accomplishing their object. That which no law could sup- press, so long as the old popular forms re- tained any of their pristine vigour, was ac- complished by the imperial usurpation. Cae- sar, when dictator, nominated half the candi- dates for public offices, except the candidates for the consulship, and notified his pleasure to the tribes by a civil circular ; the populus chose the other half: and Tiberius transfer- red the elections from the comitia to the sen- ate, by which the offence of ambitus, in its proper sense, entirely disappeared.
The trials for ambitus were numerous in the time of the republic. The oration of Cicero in defence of L. Murena, who was charged with ambitus, and that in defence of Cn. Plancius, who was charged with sodalitium, are both extant.
AMBRp'SIA (tipppoata), the food of the gods, which conferred upon them eternal youth and immortality, and was brought to Jupiter by pigeons. It was also used by the gods for anointing their body and hair; whence we read of the ambrosial locks of Jupiter.
AMBUBAIAE (probably from the Syriac, abub, aubub, a pipe), Eastern dancing girls, who frequented chiefly the circus at Rome, and obtained their living by prostitution and lascivious songs and dances.
AMBU'RBIUM, a sacrifice which was per- formed at Rome for the purification of the city.
AMICTUS. The verb amicire is commonly opposed to induere, the former being applied to the putting on of the outer -garment, the pallium, laena, or toga (faaTioy, 0apoc) ; the latter, to the putting on of the inner garment, the tunic (%ir&v). In consequence of this distinction, the verbal nouns amictus and in- dutus, even without any farther denomination of the dress being added, indicate respectively the outer and inner clothing.
In Greek amicire is expressed by a6ai, ujUTrexecrdai, tTrttfahfaodai, faaSai : and induere by ivSvveiv. Hence came d/iTre^ov?/, £7Ti'/?/l7?//a, and e7u/36/leuov, TTKpi!37(,r)fj.a, and 7repi(3dAaiov, an outer gar- ment, a cloak, a shawl ; and £vdv(j,a, an inner garment, a tunic, a shirt.
AMENTUM, a leathern tl^ng tied to the middle of the spear, to assist in throwing it. We are not informed how the amentum added to the effect of throwing the lance ; perhaps it was by giving it rotation; and hence a greater degree of steadiness and directness in its flight, as in the case of a ball shot from a rifle gun. This supposition accounts for the frequent use of the verb torquere, to whirl or B2
AMPHICTYONES.
17
twist, in connection with this subject. The amentum was called ancule(ayKv^.r]) in Greek, and the verb evayKvhdu was used in reference to the fastening of the thong to the spear or javelin.
In the annexed figure the amentum seems to be attached to the spear at the centre oi gravity, a little above the middle.
AMMA (ufifia), a Greek measure of length, equal to forty Tnfaetf (cubits), or sixty irodeq (feet) ; that is, twenty yards 8 . 1 inches Eng- lish. It was used in measuring land.
AMPHI'CTYONES ('A/*0«eri;we?). In- stitutions called amphictyonic appear to have existed in Greece from time immemorial. They seem to have been originally associa- tions of neighbouring tribes, formed for the regulation of mutual intercourse and the pro- tection of a common temple or sanctuary, at which the representatives of the different members met, both to transact business and to celebrate religious rites and games. One of these associations was of much greater im- portance than all the rest, and was called by way of eminence, the Amphictyonic League o>
18
AMPHICTYONES.
Council ('Afj,<j>iKTVovia). It differed from oth- ] er similar associations in having two places ; of meeting, the sanctuaries of two divinities ; which were the temple of Demeter (Ceres), in a village of Anthela, near Thermopylae, where the deputies met in autumn ; and that of : Apollo, at Delphi, where they assembled in ' spring. Its connexion with the latter place \ not only contributed to its dignity, but also to ; its permanence.
Its early history is involved in obscurity. Most of the ancients suppose it to have been founded by Amphictyon, the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, from whom they imagined that it derived its name : but this opinion is desti- tute of all foundation, and arose from the ' ancients assigning the establishment of their institutions to some mythical hero. There ; can be little doubt as to the true etymology of the word. It was originally written uju^iKTi- \ ovef, and consequently signified those that dwelt around some particular locality. Its j institution, however, is clearly of remote an- i tiquity. It was originally composed of twelve ; tribes (not cities or states, it must be observed), each of which tribes contained various inde- ; pendent cities or states. We learn from Aes- chines that, in B. c. 343, eleven of these tribes were as follows : The Thessalians, Boeotians (not Thebans only), Dorians, lonians, Per- rhaebians, Magnetes, Locrians, Oetaeans or Oenianians, Phthiots or Achaeans of Phthia, Malians, and Phocians ; other lists leave us in doubt whether the remaining tribe were the Dolopes or Delphians ; but as the Del- phians could hardly be called a distinct tribe, their nobles appearing to have been Dorians, it seems probable that the Dolopes were ori- ginally members, and afterwards supplanted by the Delphians. All the states belonging to each of these tribes were on a footing of perfect equality. Thus Sparta enjoyed no ad- vantages over Dorium and Cytinium, two small towns in Doris : and Athens, an Ionic city, was on a par with Eretria in Euboea, and Priene in Asia Minor, two other Ionic cities.
The ordinary council was called Pylaea vhaia), from its meeting in the neighbour-
hood of Pylae (Thermopylae), but the same name was given to the session at Delphi as well as to that at Thermopylae. The coun- cil was composed of two classes of represen- tatives, one called Pylagorae (Tlvhayopcu), and the other Hieromnemones ('lepofj.i'ij/j.ove^). Athens sent three Pylagorae and one Hie- romnemon ; of whom the former were elected apparently for each session, and the latter by lot probably for a longer period. Respecting the relative duties of the Pylagorae and Hie-
romnemones we have little information : the name of the latter implies that they had a more immediate connexion with the temple. We are equally in the dark respecting the numbers who sat in the council and its mode of proceeding. It would seem that all the deputies had seats in the council, and took part in its deliberations ; but if it be true, as appears from Aeschines, that each of the tribes had only two votes, it is clear that all the deputies could not have voted.
In addition to the ordinary council, there was an ecclesia (eKK^Tjma), or general assem- bly, including not only the classes above men- tioned, but also those who had joined in the sacrifices, arid were consulting the god. It was convened on extraordinary occasions by the chairman of the council.
Of the duties of the Arnphictyons nothing will give us a clearer view than the oath they took, which was as follows : — " They would destroy no city of the Arnphictyons, nor cut off their streams in war or peace ; and if any should do so, they would march against him, and destroy his cities ; and should any pillage the property of the god, or be privy to or plan anything against what was in his temple (at Delphi), they would take vengeance on him with hand and foot, and voice, and all their might." From this oath we see that the main duty of the deputies was the preservation of the rights and dignity of the temple of Delphi. We know, too, that after it was burnt down (B. c. 548), they contracted with the Alcmae- onidae for the rebuilding. History, moreo- ver, teaches that if the council produced any palpable effects, it was from their interest in Delphi ; and though it kept up a standing re- cord of what ought to have been the interna- tional law of Greece, it sometimes acquiesced in, and at other times was a party to, the most iniquitous acts. Of this the case of Crissa is an instance. This town lay on the Gulf of Corinth, near Delphi, and was much frequented by pilgrims from the West. The Crissaeans were charged by the Delphians with undue exactions from these strangers. The council was against them, as guilty of a wrong against the god. The war lasted ten years, till, at the suggestion of Solon, the waters of the Pleistus were turned off, then poisoned, and turned again into the city. The besieged drank their fill, and Crissa was soon razed to the ground ; and thus, if it were an Amphictyonic city, was a solemn oath doubly violated. Its territory— the rich Cirrhaean plain — was consecrated to the god, and cur- ses imprecated upon whomsoever should til! or dwell in it. Thus ended the First Sacred War (B. c. 585), in which the Athf
AMPH1CTYONES.
nians were the instraments of Delphian ven- geance.
The second, or Phocian War (B. c. 350), was the most important, in which the Am- phictyons were concerned; and in this the Thebans availed themselves of the sanction of the council to take vengeance on their en- emies, the Phocians. To do this, however, it was necessary to call in Philip of Macedon, who readily proclaimed himself the champion of Apollo, as it opened a pathway to his own ambition. The Phocians were subdued (B. c. 346), and the council decreed that all their cities, except Abae, should be razed, and the inhabitants dispersed in villages not contain- ing more than fifty persons. Their two votes were given to Philip, who thereby gained a pretext for interfering with the affairs of Greece ; and also obtained the recognition of his subjects as Hellenes.
The Third Sacred War arose from the Am- phissians tilling the devoted Cirrhaean plain. The Amphictyons called in the assistance of Philip, who soon reduced the Amphissians to subjection. Their submission was immedi- ately followed by the battle of Chaeroneia (B. c. 338), and the extinction of the indepen- dence of Greece. In the following year, a congress of the Amphictyonic states was held, in which war was declared as if by united Greece against Persia, and Philip elected commander-in- chief. On this occasion the Amphictyons assumed the character of na- tional representatives as ol old, when they set a price upon the head of Ephialtes, for his trea- son to Greece at Thermopylae.
It has been sufficiently shown that the Am- phictyons themselves did not observe the oaths they took ; and that they did not much alleviate the horrors of war, or enforce what they had sworn to do, is proved by many in- stances. Thus, for instance, Mycenae was destroyed by Argos (B. c. 535), Thespiae and Plataea by Thebes, and Thebes herself swept from the face of the earth by Alexander, with- out the Amphictyons raising one word in op- oosition. Indeed, a few years before the Pel- uponnesian war, the council was a passive spectator of what Thucydides calls the Sa- cred War (6 tepof 7rd/lf//of), when the Lace- daemonians made an expedition to Delphi, and put the temple into the hands of the Del- phians, the Athenians, after their departure, restoring it to the Phocians. The council is rarely mentioned after the time of Philip. We are told that Augustus wished his new city, Nicopolis (A. D. 31), to be enrolled among the members. Pausanias, in the second cen- tury of our era, mentions it as still existing, but deprived of al! power and influence.
AMPHITHEA 'RUM.
19
AMPHIDRO'MIA ('Apy Ipofiia or Apo/j- idftQiov ijfj-ap], a family festivu' of the Athe- nians, at which the newly-born child was in- troduced into the family, and received its name. The friends and relations of the pa- rents were invited to the festival of the am- phidromia, which was held in the evening, and they generally appeared with presents. The house was decorated on the outside with olive branches when the child was a boy, or with garlands of wool when the child was a girl ; and a repast was prepared for the guests. The child was carried round the fire by the nurse, and thus, as it were, presented to the gods of the house and to the family, and at the same time received its name, to which the guests were witnesses. The carrying of the child round the hearth was the principal part of the solemnity, from which its name was derived.
AMPHITHEA'TRUM, an amphitheatre, was a place for the exhibition of public shows of combatants and wild beasts, entirely sur- rounded by seats for the spectators ; where- as, in those for dramatic performances, the seats were arranged in a semicircle facing the stage. An amphitheatre is therefore fre- quently described as a double theatre, con- sisting of two such semicircles, or halves, joined together, the spaces allotted to their orchestras becoming the inner inclosure, or area, termed the arena. The form, however, of the ancient amphitheatres was not a circle, but invariably an ellipse.
Gladiatorial shows and combats of wild beasts (venationes) were first exhibited in the forum and the circus ; and it appears that the ancient custom was still preserved till the time of Julius Caesar. The first building in the form of an amphitheatre is said to have been erected by M. Scribonius Curio, one of Caesar's partisans ; but the account which is given of this building sounds rather fabulous. It is said to have consisted of two wooden theatres made to revolve on pivots, in such a manner that they could, by means of wind- lasses and machinery, be turned round face to face, so as to form one building. Soon after Caesar himself erected a real amphithe- atre in the Campus Martius, made of wood ; to which building the name of amphitheatrum was for the first time given.
The first stone amphitheatre was built by Statilius Taurus, in the Campus Martius, at the desire of Augustus. This was the only stone amphitheatre at Rome till the time of Vespasian. One was commenced by Calig- ula, but was not continued by Claudius. The one erected by Nero in the Campus Martius was only a temporary building, made of wowV
20
AMPHITHEATRUM.
Th»? amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus was burnt in the fire of Rome in the time of Nero ; and hence, as a new one was needed, Vespa- sian commenced the celebrated Amphitheatrum Flavianum in the middle of the city, in the valley between the Cnclian, the Esquiline, and the Velia, on the spot originally occupied by the lake or large pond attached to Nero's palace. Vespasian did not live to finish it. It was dedicated by Titus in A. D. 80, but was not completely finished till the reign of Do- mitian. This immense edifice, which is even yet comparatively entire, covered about five acres of ground, and was capable of contain- ing about 87,000 spectators. It is called at the present day the Colosseum.
The interior of an amphitheatre was divi- decr into three parts, the arena, podium, and gradus. The clear open space in the centre of the amphitheatre was called the arena, be- cause it was covered with sand, or sawdust, to prevent the gladiators from slipping, and to absorb the blood. The size of the arena was not always the same in proportion to the size of the amphitheatre, but its average pro- portion was one third of the shorter diameter of the building.
The arena was surrounded by a wall dis- tinguished by the name of podium ; although such appellation, perhaps, rather belongs to merely the upper part of it, forming the par- apet, or balcony, before the first or lowermost seats, nearest to the arena. The arena, therefore, was no more than an open oval court, surrounded by a wall about eighteen feet high, measuring from the ground to the top of the parapet ; a height considered ne- cessary, in order to render the spectators perfectly secure from the attacks of wild beasts. There, were four principal entrances leading into the arena ; two at the ends of each axis or diameter of it, to which as many passages led directly from the exterior of the building; besides secondary ones, inter- vening between them, and communicating with the corridors beneath the seats on the podium.
The wall or enclosure of the arena is sup- posed to have been faced with marble, more or less sumptuous ; besides which, there ap- pears to have been, in some instances at least, a sort of network affixed to the top of the po- dium, consisting of railing-, or rather open trellis-work of metal. As a farther defence, iitches, called euripi, sometimes surrounded the arena.
The term podium was also applied to the terrace, or gallery itself, immediately above the arena, which was no wider than to be ca- pable of containing two, or at the most three
ranges of movable seats, or chairs. This as being by far the best situation for distinctly viewing the sports in the arena, and also more commodiously accessible than the seats high- er up, was the place set apart for senators and other persons of distinction, such as the am- bassadors of foreign parts ; and it was here, also, that the emperor himself used to sit, in an elevated place, called suggestus or cubicu- lum, and likewise the person who exhibited the games on a place elevated like a pulpit or tribunal (editoris tribunal).
Above the podium were the gradus, or seats of the other spectators, which were divided into macniana, or storie.s. The first maenianum, consisting of fourteen rows of stone or marble seats, was appropriated to the equestrian or- der. The seats appropriated to the senators and equites were covered with cushions, which were first used in the time of Caligula. Then, after an interval or space, termed a praecinctio, and forming a continued landing- place from the several staircases in it, suc- ceeded the second maenianum, where were the seats called popularia, for the third class of spectators, or the populus. Behind this was the second praecinctio, bounded by a rather high wall ; above which was the third maenianum, where there were only wooden benches for the pullati, or common people. The next and last division, namely, that in the highest part of the building, consisted of a colonnade, or gallery, where females were allowed to witness the spectacles of the am- phitheatre, some parts of which were also oc- cupied by the pullati. Each maenianum was not only divided from the other by the prae- cinctio, but was intersected at intervals by spaces for passages left between the seats, called scalae, or scalaria ; and the portion be- tween two such passages was called cuneus, because the space gradually widened like a wedge, from the podium to the top of the building. The entrances to the seats from the outer portices were called vomitoria. At the very summit was the narrow platform for the men who had to attend to the velarium, or awning, by which the building was covered as a defence against the sun and rain. The velarium appears usually to have been made of wood, but more costly materials were some- times employed.
The first of the following cuts represents a longitudinal section of the Flavian amphithe- atre, and the second, which is on a larger scale, a part of the above section, including the exterior wall, and the seats included be- tween that and the arena. It will serve to convey an idea of the leading form and gen- eral disposition of the interior.
AMPHITHEATRUM.
Longitudinal Section of the Flavian Amphitheatre.
Eleration of one side of the preceding section.
EXPLANATION.
A, The arena.
/>, The wall or podium inclosing it.
p, The podium itself, on which were chairs, or seats, for the senators, &c.
M', The first maenianum, or slope of benches, for the .equestrian order.
M", The second maenianum.
M"', The third maenianum, elevated consid- erably above the preceding one, and appro- priated to the pullati.
w, The colonnade, or gallery, which con- tained seats for women.
z, The narrow gallery round the summit of the interior, for the attendants who worked the velarium.
pr, pr, The praecinctiones, or landings, at the top of the first and second maenianum ; in the pavement of which were grated aper- tures, at intervals, to admit light into the vornitoria beneath them.
v v v v, Vornitoria.
G G G, The three external galleries through
the circumference of the building, open to
the arcades of the exterior. gg, Inner gallery.
The situation and arrangement of the stair cases, &c., are not expressed, as they could not be rendered intelligible without plans at various levels of the building.
For an account of the gladiatorial contests, and the shows of wild beasts, exhibited in the amphitheatre, see GLADIATORES and VENA- TIO.
A'MPHORA (anQopevc;), a vessel used for holding wine, oil, honey, &c.
The following cut represents amphorae in the Bntish Museum. They are of various forms and sizes ; in general they are tall and narrow, with a small neck, and a handle oti
Amphorae.
each side of the neck (whence the name, from u/utii, on both sides, and <j)spu, to carry), and terminating at the bottom in a point, which
22 AMPLIATIO.
was let into a stand or stuck in the ground, so that the vessel stood upright : several am- phorae have been found in this position in the cellars at Pompeii. Amphorae were com- monly made of earthenware. Homer mentions amphorae of gold and stone, and the Egypt- ians had them of brass; glass vessels of this form have been found at Pompeii.
The most common use of the amphora, both among the Greeks and the Romans, was for keeping wine. The cork was covered with pitch or gypsum, and (among the Romans) on the outside the title of the wine was painted, the date of the vintage being marked by the names of the consuls then in office ; or, when the jars were of glass, little tickets (pittoria, tesserae) were suspended from them, indicating these particulars.
ANACR1SIS.
Mode of filling Amphorae from a Wine-Cart.
The Greek amphoreus and the Roman am- phora were also names of fixed measures. The amphoreus, which was also called metretes (fiETptfTTjc), and cadus (/cddof), was equal to three Roman urnae= 8 gallons, 7.365 pints, imperial measure. The Roman amphora was two-thirds of the amphoreus, and was equal to 2 urnae = 8 congii = to 5 gallons, 7.577 pints ; its solid content was exactly a Roman cubic foot.
AMPLIA'TIO, an adjournment of a trial, which took place when the judices, after hearing the evidence of the advocates, were unable to corne to a satisfactory conclusion. This they expressed by giving in the tablets, on which were the letters N.L. (non liquet), and the praetor, by pronouncing the word am- plius, thereupon adjourned the trial to any day ne chose. The defendant and the cause were then said ampliari.
AMPYX (U/HTTV^ ufj.7TVKT^p, Lai. frontale), a frontal, a broad band or plate of metal, which ladies of rank wore above the forehead as part of the head-dress. The frontal of a horse was called by the same name. The annexed cut exhibits the frontal on the head of Pegasus, in contrast with the corresponding ornament as shown on the heads of two females.
Ampyces, Krontlets.
AMPULLA (hjJKvQo?, (3onf3v?itoc),a bottle, usually made among the Romans^ either of glass or earthenware, rarely of more valuable materials. The dealer in bottles was called ampullarius.
AMULE'TUM (TrepiaTTTov, 7repiafj,/j,a, <j>v- TiaKTTJpiov), an amulet.
This word in Arabic (hamalet) means that which is suspended. It was probably brought by Arabian merchants, together with the arti- cles to which it was applied, when they were imported into Europe from the East.
An amulet was any object — a stone, a plant, an artificial production, or a piece of writing — which was suspended from the neck, or tied to any part of the body, for the purpose of warding off calamities and securing advan- tages of any kind. Faith in the virtues ot amulets was almost universal in the ancient world, so that the whole art of medicine con- sisted in a very considerable degree of direct- ions for their application.
ANACEIA ('KvuKeia, or 'AvaKeiov), a fes tival of the Dioscuri or Anactes ("Ava/cref) as they were called at Athens. These heroes, however, received the most distinguished hon- ours in the Dorian and Achaean states, where it may he supposed that every town celebrated a festival in their honour, though not under the name of Anaceia.
ANA'CRISIS (avuKpiaic). an examination, was used to signify the pleadings preparatory to a trial at Athens, the object of which waa
ANC1LE.
to determine, generally, if the action would lie. The magistrates were said avaKpiveiv TJJV 6tKi]v or TOVS avriditiovg, and the parties avaKpiveoOat. The process consisted in the production of proofs, of which there were five kinds: — 1. the laws ; 2. written documents ;
3. testimonies of witnesses present (/j.apTvpiat,') . or affidavits of absent witnesses (£K/j,apTvpiai)',
4. depositions of slaves extorted by the rack ;
5. the oath of the parties. All these proofs were committed to writing, and placed in a box secured by a seal (^ZVoc) till they were produced at the trial.
If the evidence produced at the anacrisis was so clear and convincing that there could not remain any doubt, the magistrate could decide the question without sending the cause to be tried before the dicasts : this was called diamartyria (diafiaprvpla). The archons were the proper officers for holding the anacrisis ; they are represented by Athena (Minerva), in the Eumenides of Aeschylus, where there is a poetical sketch, of the process in the law courts.
For an account of the anacrisis or examina- tion,which each archon underwent previously to entering on office, see ARCHON.
ANAGNOSTES, slaves, whose duty it was to read or repeat passages from books during an entertainment, and also at other times.
ANATOCISMUS. [FENUS.]
ANCHOR. [ANCORA.]
ANCI'LE, the sacred shield carried by the Salii, and made of bronze.
The original ancile was found, according to tradition, in the palace of Nurna ; and, as no
ANCORA.
23
j the Roman state would endure so long as this shield remained in Rome. To secure its pres- ervation in the city, Numa ordered eleven other shields, exactly like it, to be made by the armourer, Mamurius Veturius, and twelve- priests of MarsGradivus were appointed under the denomination of Salii, whose office it was to preserve the twelve ancilia. They were kept in the temple of that divinity, on the Palatine mount, and were taken from it only once a year, on the calends of March. The feast of the god was then observed during several days ; when the Salii carried their shields about the city, singing songs in praise of Mars, Numa, and Mamurius Veturius, and at the same time performing a dance, which probably in some degree resembled our morris dances, and in which they struck the shields with rods, so as to keep time with their voices, and with the movements of their dance. The preceding cut shows one of these rods, as represented on the tomb of a pontifex salius, or chief of the Salii. A'NCORA (ajKvpa), an anchor. The anchor used by the ancients was for the most part made of iron, and its form resembled that of the modern anchor. The shape of the two extremities illustrates the unco morsu and dente tenaci of Virgil. Indeed, the Greek and
Ancilia carried by Salii.
numan hand had brought it there, it was con- cluded that it had been sent from heaven. At the same time, the haruspices declared that
Latin names themselves express the essential property of the anchor being allied to ay/cii/lof, uyKUV, angulus, uncus, &C.
The anchor as here represented and as com- monly used, was called bidens, dnr^rj, a^L- /?o/lof or ufjt(j)iffTOfiof, because it had two teeth or flukes. Sometimes it had one only, and then it had the epithet erepocrro/zof. The fol- lowing expressions were used for the three principal processes in managing the anchor : — Ancoram solvere, ayitvpav xaXuv, to loose the anchor. Ancoram jacere, ftdTOieiv, ptTrreiv, to cast anchor. Ancoram tollere, aipeiv, uvatpel- cdat, uvd(7Traa6at, to weigh anchor. Hence alpeiv by itself meant to set sail, aynvpav be- ing understood.
The anchor usually lay on the deck, and was
24 ANNULUS.
attached to a cable (funis), which passed through a hole in the prow, termed oculus.
Galley with the Cable to which the Anchor is attached passing through the Oculus in the Prow.
In the heroic times of Greece we find large stones, called evvai (sleepers), used instead of anchors.
ANDABATA. [GLADIATOR.]
ANDROLEPS'IA or ANDROLEPS'ION (aydpohrj^ia or uv6po%,iJTJ.>Lov), the right of re- prisals, a custom recognized by the interna- tional law of the Greeks, that, when a citizen of one state had killed a citizen of another, and the countrymen of the former would not surrender him to the relatives of the deceased, it should be lawful to seize upon three, and not more, of the countrymen of the offender, and keep them as hostages till satisfaction was afforded, or the homicide given up.
ANGUSTICLA'VII. [CLAVUS.]
ANNO'NA (from annus, like pomona from pomum). 1. The produce of the year in corn, fruit, wine, &c., and hence, 2. Provisions in general, especially the corn, which, in the later years of the republic, was collected in the storehouses of the state, and sold to the poor at a cheap rate in times of scarcity ; and which, under the emperors, was distributed to the people gratuitously, or given as pay and re- wards. 3. The price of provisions. 4. A soldier's allowance of provisions for a certain time. It is used also in the plural for yearly or monthly distributions of pay in corn, &c.
A'NNULUS (daKTMtotf, a ring.
It is probable that the custom of wearing rings was introduced into Greece from Asia, where it appears to have been almost univer- sal. They were worn not merely as orna- ments, but as articles for use, as the ring al- ways served as a seal. A seal was called sphragis (aQpayie), and hence this name was given to the ring itself, and also to the gem or stone for a ring in which figures were en-
ANQUISITIO.
graved. Rings in Greece were mostly worn on the fourth finger (Trapu/ueao?).
At Rome, the custom of wearing rings was be- lieved to have been introduced by the Sabines, whowere described in the early legends as wear- ing golden rings with precious stones of great beauty. But whenever introduced at Rome, it is certain that they were at first always of iron ; that they were destined for the same purpose as in Greece, namely, to be used as seals ; and that every free Roman had a right to use such a ring. This iron ring was worn down to the last period of the republic by such men as loved the simplicity of the good old times. In the course of time, however, it became customary for all the senators, chief magistrates, and at last for the equites also, to wear a golden seal-ring. The right of wear- ing a gold ring,which was subsequently called the jus annuli aurei, or the jus annulorum, re- mained for several centuries at Rome the exclusive privilege of senators, magistrates, and equites, while all other persons continued to wear iron ones.
During the empire the right of granting the annulus aureus belonged to the emperors, and some of them were not very scrupulous in conferring this privilege. The emperors Se- verus and Aurelian conferred the right of wearing golden rings upon all Roman sol- diers ; and Justinian at length allowed all the citizens of the empire, whether ingenui or libertini, to wear such rings.
During the republic, and the early times of the empire, the jus annuli seems to have made a person ingenuus (if he was a libertus), and to have raised him to the rank of eques, pro- vided he had the requisite equestrian census, and it was probably never granted to any one who did not possess this census. Those who "ost their property, or were found guilty of a criminal offence, lost the jus annuli.
The signs engraved upon rings were very various : they were portraits of ancestors or of "riends, subjects connected with mythology ; and in many cases a person had engraved upon his seal symbolical allusion to the real or mythical history of his family. The part of the ring which contained the gem was called pala.
With the increasing love of luxury nnd show, the Romans, as well as the Greeks, covered their fingers with rings. Some per- sons also wore rings of immoderate size, and others used different rings for summer and winter.
ANNUS. [CALENDARIUM.] ANQUISI'TIO, signified, in criminal trials at Rome, the investigation of the facts of the case with reference to the penalty that was
ANTAE.
to he imposed : accordingly the phrases pecunia capitis, or capitis anquirere are used. Under the emperors the term anquisitio lost its original meaning, and was employed to indicate an accusation in general ; in which sense it also occurs even in the times jof the republic.
ANTAE (Trapacrracfcf), square pillars, which were commonly joined to the side- walls of a building, being placed on each side of the door, so as to assist in forming the por- tico. These terms are seldom found except in the plural ; because the purpose served by antae required that they should be erected corresponding to each other, and supporting the extremities of the same roof. Their posi- tion and form will be best understood from the cut, in which A A are the antae. The temple in antis was one of the simplest kind. It had in front antae attached to the walls which inclosed the cella ; and in the middle, between the antae, two columns supporting the architrave. The following is a specimen of the temple in antis, together with a plan of the pronaos.
ANTEF1XA.
'25
Temple in antis.
A, A, the antae ; B, B, the cella or vaof ; o, the ittar.
C
ANTEAMBULO'NES, slaves who were accustomed to go before their masters, in order to make way for them through the crowd. The term anteambulones was also given to the clients, who were accustomed to walk before their patroni, when the latter appeared in public.
ANTECESSO'RES, called also ANTE- CURSO'RES, horse-soldiers, who were ac- customed to precede an army on march, in order to choose a suitable place for the camp, and to make the necessary provisions for the army. They do not appear to have been merely scouts, like the speculatores.
ANTEFIXA, terra-cottas, which exhibited various ornamental designs, and were used in architecture to cover the frieze (zophorus) of the entablature.
These terra-cottas do not appear to have been used among the Greeks, but were prob- ably Etruscan in their origin, and were thence taken for the decoration of Roman buildings.
The name antefixa is evidently derived from the circumstance that they were fixed before the buildings which they adorned. Cato, the censor, complained that the Romans of his time began to despise ornaments of this de- scription, and to prefer the marble friezes of Athens and Corinth. The rising taste which Cato deplored may account for the superior beauty of the antefixa preserved in the Brit- ish Museum, which were discovered at Rome.
Antefixa representing Minerva superintending the constructing of the Ship Argo.
The two imperfect antefixa that follow, are among those found at Velletn, and described by Carkmi. (Roma, 1785.)
ANTENNA.
ANTENNA, (Kepaia, icfyas), the yard of a ship. The ships of the ancients had a single mast in the middle, and a square sail, to raise and support which a transverse pole, or yard (antenna), was extended across the mast, not far from the top. To the two extremities of the yard (cornua, a/cpo/cepam), ropes (funes) were attached, which passed over the top of the mast, and thus supported the yard : these ropes were called ceruchi. Sometimes the yard had two, and at other times four ceruchi, as in the annexed cut.
Antenna, Yard of a Ship.
When a storm arose, or when the port was obtained, or before an engagement, the an- tenna was lowered to the middle of the mast.
From numerous representations of ships on antique coins, intaglios, lamps, and bas-reliefs, we here select two gems, both of which show
ANTLIA.
the velata antenna, but with the sail reefed in the one, and in the other expanded and swol- len with the wind.
Velata Antenna.
ANTEPJLA'NI. [EXERCITUS.]
ANTESIGNA'NI appear to have been a body of troops, selected for the defence of the standard (signum), before which they were stationed. They were not light troops, as some have supposed, and they were probably selected for this duty on occount of their bra- very and experience in war.
ANTI'DOSIS (ftvr/<Jo<wf), in its literal and general meaning, " an exchange," was, in the language of the Attic courts, peculiarly ap- plied to proceedings under a law which is said to have originated with Solon. By this, a citizen nominated to perform a leiturgia, such as a trierarchy or choregia, or to rank among the property-tax payers, in a class dispropor- tioned to his means, was empowered to call upon any qualified person not so charged to take the office in his stead, or submit to a complete exchange of property, the charge in question of course attaching to the first party, if the exchange were finally effected. For the proceedings the courts were opened at a stated time every year by the magistrates that had official cognizance of the particular subject ; such as the strategi in cases of trierarchy and rating to the property-taxes, and the archon in those of choregia.
ANTIGRAPHE (fonypaM), originally signified the writing put in by the defendant, his " plea " in all causes whether public or private, in answer to the indictment or bill ol the prosecutor. It is, however, also applied to the bill or indictment of the plaintiff or accuser.
A'NTLIA (avTJiia), any machine for rais- ing water, a pump.
The most important of these machines were: — 1. The tympanum; a tread- wheel, wrought by men treading on it. 2. A wheel having wooden boxes or buckets, so arranged as to form steps for those who trod the wheel. 3. The chain pump. 4. The cochlea, or Ar- chimedes's screw. 5. The ctcsibica machina
APATUR1A.
or forcing pump. Criminals were condemned to the antlia or tread-mill.
ANTYX (avrvf), the rim or border of any thing, especially of a shield or chariot. The rim of the large round shield of the ancient Greeks, was thinner than the part which it enclosed : but on the other hand, the antyx of a chariot must have been thicker than the body to which it gave both form and strength.
In front of the chariot the antyx was often raised above the body, into the form of a cur- vature, which served the purpose of a hook to hang the reins upon.
Antyx of a Chariot
APAGO'GE (a-Ttayuyrf), a summary pro- cess, allowed in certain cases by the Athenian law. The term denotes not merely the act of apprehending a culprit caught in ipso facto, but also the written information delivered to the magistrate, urging his apprehension. The cases in which the apagogr was most generally allowed were those of theft, murder, ill-usage of parents, &c.
APATU'RIA (uTTarovpta) was a political festival, which the Athenians had in common with all the Greeks of the Ionian name, with the exception of those of Colophon and Ephe- sus. It was celebrated in the month of Py- anepsion, and lasted for three days. The name airarovpia is not derived from cnrardv, to deceive, but is composed of u=(ifj.a, and Trarvpia, which is perfectly consistent with what Xenophon says of the festival, that when it is celebrated the fathers and relations assemble together. According to this deri- vation, it is the festival at which the phratriae met to discuss and settle their own affairs. But, as every citizen was a member of a phra- tria, the festival extended over the whole na- tion, who assembled according to phratriae.
The festival lasted three days. The third
APHRACTUS. • 27
day was the most important ; for on that day, children born in that year, in the families of the phratriae, or such as were not yet regis- tered, were taken by their fathers, or in their absence by their representatives (nvpLoi), be- fore the assembled members of the phratria. For every child a sheep or a goat was sacri- ficed. The father, or he who supplied his place, was obliged to establish by oath that the child was the offspring of free-born pa- rents, and citizens of Athens. After the victim was sacrificed, the phratores gave their votes, which they took from the altar of Jupiter Phratrius. When the majority voted against the reception, the cause might' be tried before one of the courts of Athens ; and if the claims of the child were found unobjectionable, its name, as well as that of the father, was en- tered into the register of the phratria, and those who had wished to effect the exclusion of the child were liable to be punished. APERTA NAVIS. [APHRACTUS.] APEX, a cap worn by the flamines and salii at Rome. The essential part of the apex, to which alone the name properly be- longed, was a pointed piece of olive-wood, the base of which was surrounded with a lock of wool. This was worn on the top of the head, and was held there either by fillets only, or, as was more commonly the case, by the aid of a cap which fitted the head, and was also fastened by means of two strings or bands.
Apices, Caps worn by the Salii.
APHRACTUS (fypaicTOf vovf), called also navis aperta, a ship which had no deck, but was merely covered with planks in the front and hinder part, as is represented in
23
APLUSTRE.
APOSTOLEUS.
the following cut. The ships which had decks were called cataphracti (itaTutypaKToi), and tectGE or strata. At the time of the Tro- jan war the Greek ships had no decks, but were only covered over in the prow and stern, which covering Homer calls the lupta
Aphractus.
APHRODFSI A ('A0po<ta7ta),were festivals celebrated in honour of Aphrodite (Venus), in a great number of towns in Greece, but partic- ularly in the island of Cyprus. Her most ancient temple was at Paphos. No bloody sacrifices were allowed to be offered to her, but only pure fire, flowers, and incense.
APLUSTRE (atyaarov), an ornament of wooden planks, which constituted the high- est part of the poop (prumnis) of a ship. From the representations of two ancient ships an- nexed, we see the position of the aplustre. It rose immediately behind the gubernator, who held the rudder and guided the ship, and it served in some degree to protect him from the wind and the rain.
Aplustre.
At the junction of the aplustre with the stern, on which it was based, we^ commonly observe an ornament resembling a circular shield ; this was called uamdelov or affTudi- CKIJ. It is seen on the two aplustria here repiesented.
Aplustre.
APODECTAE (anode/crai), public officers at Athens, who were introduced by Cleis- thenes in the place of the ancient colacretae (/CGj/Uz/eperaO- They were ten in number, one for each tribe, and their duty was to col- lect all the ordinary taxes, and distribute them among the separate branches of the ad- ministration which were entitled to them.
APOGRAPHE (ttTToypa^), literally "a list, or register ;" signified also, 1. An accusa- tion in public matters, more particularly when there were several defendants. It differed but little, if at all, from the ordinary graphe. 2. A solemn protest or assertion before a magis- trate, to the intent that it might be preserved by him till it was required to be given in evi- dence. 3. A specification of property, said to belong to the state, but actually in the possession of a private person ; which speci- fication was made with a view to the confis- cation of such property to the state.
APOLLINA'RES LUDI. [LuDi APOLLI-
NARES.]
APOPHORE'TA (u7ro06/w?ra) were pres- ents, which were given to friends at the end of an entertainment to take home with them. These presents appear to have been usually given on festival days, especially during the Saturnalia.
APOSTOLEUS (uTroffrotavf), the name of a public officer at Athens. There were ten magistrates of this name and their duty was to see that the ships were properly equip- ped and provided by these who were bound
APOTHEOSIS.
to discharge the trierarchy. They had the power, in certain cases, of imprisoning the trierarchs who neglected to furnish the ships properly.
APOTHE'CA (dTrodtJKJ]), a place in the upper part of the house, in which the Ro- mans frequently placed the earthen amphorae in which their wines were deposited. This place, which was quite different from the cello, vinaria, was above ihefumarium ; since it was thought that the passage of the smoke through the room tended greatly to increase the fla- vour of the wine.
APOTHEO'SIS (a7T00ewc7ic), the enrol- ment of a mortal among the gods. The my- thology of Greece contains numerous instan- ces of the deification of mortals ; but in the republican times of Greece we find few ex- amples of such deification. The inhabitants of Amphipolis, however, offered sacrifices to Brasidas after his death. In the Greek king- doms, which arose in the East on the dis- memberment of the empire of Alexander, it appears to have been not uncommon for the successor to the throne to offer divine honours to the former sovereign. Such an apotheo- sis of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, is described by Theocritus in his 17th Idyl.
The term apotheosis, among the Romans, properly signified the elevation of a deceased emperor to divine honours. This practice, which was common upon the death of almost all the emperors, appears to have arisen from the opinion which was generally entertained among the Romans, that the souls or manes of their ancestors became deities; and as it was common for children to worship the manes of their fathers, so it was natural for divine honours to be publicly paid to a de- ceased emperor, who was regarded as the parent of his country. This apotheosis of an emperor was usually called consecratio ; and the emperor who received the honour of an apotheosis was usually said in deorum numerum referri, or consecrari, and whenever he is spoken of after his death, the title of divus is prefixed to his name. The funeral pile on which the body of the deceased em- peror was burnt, was constructed of several stories in the form of chambers rising one above another, and in the highest an eagle was placed, which was let loose as the fire began to burn, and which was supposed to carry the soul of the emperor from earth to heaven.
The following wood-cut is taken from an agate, which is supposed to represent the apo theosis of Germanicus. In his left hand he holds the cornucopia, and Victory is placing a laurel crown upon his head. c2
APPELLATIO.
APPA'RITOR, the general name for a pub- lic servant of the magistrates at Rome, namely the ACCENSUS, CARNIFEX, COACTOR, INTER- PRES, LICTOR, PRAECO, SCRIBA, STATOR, VIATOR, of whom an account is given in sep- arate articles. They were called apparitores because they were at hand to execute the commands of the magistrates (quod Us appare- bant). Their service or attendance was called apparitio.
APPELLA'TIO, appeal. 1. GREEK (tyeais or avadiKta). Owing to the constitution of the Athenian tribunals, each of which was generally appropriated to its peculiar subjects of cognizance, and therefore could not be con- sidered as homogeneous with or subordinate to any other, there was little opportunity for bringing appeals properly so called. It is to be observed also, that in general a cause was finally and irrevocably decided by the verdict of the dicasts (dint) avroTeZrjc)- There were only a few exceptions in which appeals and new trials might be resorted to.
2. ROMAN. The word appellatio, and the corresponding verb appellare, are used in the early Roman writers to express the applica- tion of an individual to a magistrate, and par- ticularly to a tribune, in order to protect him- self from some wrong inflicted, or threatened to be inflicted. It is distinguished from pro- vocatio, which in the early writers is used to signify an appeal to the populus in a matter affecting life. It would seem that the provo- catio was an ancient right of the Roman citi- zens. The surviving Horatius,who murdered his sister, appealed from the duumviri to the populus. The decemviri took away the pro- vocatio ; but it was restored by the Lex Vale- ria et Horatia, B. c. 449, in the year after the decemvirate, and it was at the same time
30
AQUAE DUCTUS.
enacted, that in future no magistrate should be made from whom theje should be no ap- peal. On this Livy remarks, that the plebs were now protected by the provocatio and the tribuntcium auxilium ; this latter term has ref- erence to the appellatio properly so called. The complete phrase to express the provoca- tio is provocare ad populum ; and the phrase which expresses the appellatio is appellare ad, &c.
AQUAE DUCTUS, signifies an artificial channel or watercourse, by which a supply of water is brought from a considerable distance, upon an inclined plane raised on arches, and carried across valleys and uneven country, and occasionally under ground, where hills or rocks intervene.
As nearly all the ancient aquaeducts now remaining are of Roman construction, it has been generally imagined that works of this description were entirely unknown to the Greeks. This, however, is an error, since some are mentioned by Pausanias and others, though too briefly to enable us to judge of their
E articular construction. Probably those which ave been recorded — such as that built by Peisistratus at Athens, that at Megara, and the celebrated one of Polycrates at Samos— were rather conduits than ranges of building like the Roman ones. Of the latter, few were constructed in the times of the republic. It was not until about B. c. 311, that any were erected, the inhabitants supplying themselves up to that time with water from the Tiber, or making use of cisterns or springs. The first aquaeduct was begun by App. Claudius the censor, and was named after him, the Aqua Appia. Subsequently seven or eight aquae- ducts were built, which brought an abundant supply of water to Rome.
The specus, or water channel, was formed either of stone or brick coated with cement, and was arched over at top, in order to ex- clude the sun, on which account there were apertures or ventholes at certain distances. The water, however, besides flowing through the specus, passed also through pipes, either of lead or burnt earth (terra-cotta). At the mouth and termination of every aquaeduct there was a large reservoir, called castellum, and there were usually also intermediate cas- tella at certain distances along its course. The castellum at the mouth or opening into the aquaeduct was also called piscina lintosa, be- cause the water was collected in it, in order that it might first deposit its impurities. The principal castellum was that in which the aquaeduct terminated, and whence the water was conveyed by different branches and pipes to various parts of the city.
ARA.
During the times of the republic, the cen- sors and aediles had the superintendence of the aquaeducts ; but under the emperors par ticular officers were appointed for that pur- pose, under the title of curatores or praefecti aquarian. These officers were first created by Augustus, and were invested with con- siderable authority. In the time of Nerva and Trajan, about seven hundred architects and others were constantly employed, under the orders of the curatores aquarum, in attending to the aquaeducts. The oflicers who had charge of these works were, 1. The villici, whose duty it was to attend to the aquaeducts in their course to the city. 2. The castellarii, who had the superintendence of all the cas- tella both within and without the city. 3. The circuitores, so called because they had to go from post to post, to examine into the state of the works, and also to keep watch over the labourers employed upon them. 4. The silicarii, or paviours. 5. The tectores, or plas- terers. All these officers appear to have been included under the general term ofaquarii.
AQUAE ET IGNIS INTERDI'CTIO.
[EXSILIUM.]
AQUA'RII, slaves who carried water for bathing, &c. into the female apartments. The aquarii were also public officers who attended to the aquaeducts. [AQUAE DUCTUS.]
AQUEDUCT. [AQUAE DUCTUS.]
A'QUILA. [SlGNA MlLITARIA.]
ARA (/fo^of 6vTTJpiov), an altar. Ara was a general term denoting any structure elevated above the ground, and used to receive upon it offerings made to the gods. Altare, prob- ably contracted from alta ara, was properly re- stricted to the larger, higher, and more expen- sive structures.
Four specimens of ancient altars are given below ; the two in the former wood-cut are
square, and those in the latter round, which is the less common form.
At the top of three of these altars we seo the hole intended to receive the fire (ka%a- pif, £ff£«pa) : the fourth was probably in-
A K AT RUM.
31
vended for the offering of fruits or other gifts, which were presented to the gods without
Arae, Altars.
fire. When the altars were prepared for sacri- fice, they were commonly decorated with gar- lands or festoons. These were composed of certain kinds of leaves and flowers, which were considered consecrated to such uses, and were called verbenae.
The altars constructed with most labour and skill belonged to temples ; and they were erected either before the temple or within the cella of the temple, and principally before the statue of the divinity to whom it was dedi- cated. The altars in the area before the tem- ple were altars of burnt-offerings, at which animal sacrifices (victimae, crQdyia, lepeta) were presented : only incense was burnt, or cakes and bloodless sacrifices offered on the altars within the building.
ARATRUM (aporpov), a plough. Among the Greek and Romans the three most essen- tial parts of the plough were— the plough-tail (yv?7C, buris, bura), the share-beam (IAv/za, dens, dentate), that is, the piece of wood to which the share is fixed, and the pole (pv/j,6^, /<7ro/30£t>c, temo). In the time and country of Virgil it was the custom to force a tree into the crooked form of the buris, or plough-tail. The upper end of the buris being held by the ploughman, the lower part, below its junction with the pole, was used to hold the dentale or share- beam, which was either sheathed with metal, or driven bare into the ground, according to circumstances. The term vomer was some- times applied to the end of the dentale.
To these three parts the two following are added in the description of the plough by Virgil :—
1. The earth-boards, or mould-boards (aures), rising on each side, bending outwardly in such a manner as to throw on either hand the soil which had been previously loosened and raised by the share, and adjusted to the share-beam
(dentale), which was made double for the pur- pose of receiving them.
2. The handle (stiva). Virgil describes this part as used to turn the plough at the end of the furrow ; and it is defined by an ancient commentator on Virgil as the "handle by which the plough is directed." It is probable that as the dentalia, the two share-beams,were in the form of the Greek letter A, which Virgil describes byduplicidorso,ihe buris was fastened to the left share-beam and the stiva to the right, so that the plough of Virgil was more like the modern Lancashire plough, which is commonly held behind with both hands. Sometimes, however, the stiva was used alone and instead of the buris or tail. In place of stiva the term capulus is sometimes employed.
The only other part of the plough requiring notice is the coulter (culler), which was used by the Romans as it is with us. It was in- serted into the pole so as to depend vertically before the share, cutting through the roots which came in its way, and thus preparing for the more complete overturning of the soil by the share.
Two small wheels were also added to some ploughs. The annexed cut shows the form of an ancient wheel-plough. It also shows distinctly the temo or pole (1), the coulter (2), the dentale or share-beam (3), the buris or plough-tail (4),
Aratrum, Plough.
and the handle* or stiva (5). It corresponds in all essential particulars with the plough now used about Mantua and Venice, of which an engraving is given. (See following page.)
The Greeks and Romans usually ploughed their land three times for each crop. The first ploughing was called proscindere, or no- vare (veovaOai, veu^eadai) ; the second nffrin- gere, or iterare ; and the third lirare, or tertiare. The field which underwent the " proscissio," was called vervactum or novale (ve6$ ), and in this process the coulter was employed, be-
32
ARCA.
cause the fresh surface was entangled with numberless roots which required to be divided
Aratrum, Plough.
1. Buns. 2. Temo. 3. Dentale. 4. Culter. 5. Vomer 6 6. Aures.
before the soil could V e turned up by the share. The term " off ringer e" from ob and fr anger e, was applied to the second ploughing ; because the long parallel clods already turned up were broken and cut across, by drawing the plough through them at right angles to its former di- rection. The field which underwent this pro- cess was called ager iteratus. After the second ploughing the sower cast his seed. Also the clods were often, though not always, broken still further by a wooden mallet, or by har- rowing (occatio}. The Roman ploughman then, for the first time, attached the earth-boards to his share. The effect of this adjustment was to divide the level surface of the " ager itera- tus " into ridges. These were called porcae, and also lirae, whence came the verb lirare, to make ridges, and also delirare, to decline from the straight line. The earth-boards, by throw- ing the earth to each side in the manner al- ready explained, both covered the newly-scat- tered seed, and formed between the ridges furrows (enUa/cef, sulci) for carrying off the water. In this state the field was called seges and rpfTTO/loc.
When the ancients ploughed three times only, it was done in the spring, summer, and autumn of the same year. But in order to obtain a still heavier crop, both the Greeks and the Romans ploughed four times, the proscissio being performed in the latter part of the preceding year, so that between one crop and another two whole years intervened.
A'RBITER. [JUDEX.]
ARCA (/a/foroc). 1 . A chest, in which the Romans were accustomed to place their money ; and the phrase ex area solvere had the meaning of paying in ready money. The term arcae was usually applied to the chests in which the rich kept their money, and was op- posed to the smaller loculi, sacculus, and cru- mena. 2. The coffin in which persons were buried, or the bier on which the corpse was placed previously to burial. 3. A strong cell made of oak, in which criminals and slaves were confined.
ARCHON.
ARCH. [ARCUS; FORNIX.}
ARCHEION (dp^efov), properly means any public place belonging to the magistrates, but s more particularly applied to the archive office, where the decrees of the people and other state documents were preserved. This office is sometimes merely called TO dr/poaiov. At Athens the archives were kept in the tem- ple of the mother of the gods (uffrpuov), and the charge of it was entrusted to the presi dent (eTTtcrrdrTyf) of the senate of the Five, hundred.
ARCHERS. [ARCUS.]
ARCHIMI'MUS, the chief actor in a pan- tomime, was especially applied to the chie. mimus, who represented at a funeral the de- ceased person, and imitated his words ami actions.
ARCHITHEO'RUS (dp^tflfopof). [THEO-
RUS.]
ARCHON (dp;j;<yv). The government of Athens began with monarchy, and after pass- ing through a dynasty* and aristocracy, ended in democracy. Of the kings of Athens, con- sidered £3 the capital of Attica, Theseus may be said to have been the first ; for to him, whether as a real individual or a representa- tive of a certain period, is attributed the union of the different and independent states of At- tica under one head. The last was Codrus ; in acknowledgment of whose patriotism in meeting death for his country, the Athenians are said to have determined that no one should succeed him with the title of king (ftaaifavtf. It seems, however, equally prob- able, that it was the nobles who availed them- selves of the oportunity to serve their own in- terests, by abolishing the kingly power for another, the possessors of which they called Archontes (up^qvrec) or rulers. These for some time continued to be, like the kings pi the house of Codrus, appointed for life : still an important point was gained byrtie nobles, the office being made accountable (virevdvvo^), which of course implies that the nobility had some control over it.
This state of things lasted for twelve reigns of archons. The next step was to limit the continuance of the office to ten years, still confining it to the Medontidae, or house oi Codrus, so as to establish what the Greeks called a dynasty, till the archonship of Eryx- ias, the last archon of that family elected as such. At the end of his ten years (B. c. 684), a much greater change took place : the ar- chonship was made annual, and its various
* By this is meant that the supreme power, thougb not monarchical, was confined to one family.
ARCHON.
33
duties divided among a college of nine, chosen by suffrage ( xeiporovia) from the Eupatridae, or Patricians, and no longer elected from the Medontidae exclusively. This arrangement lasted till the time of Solon, who still con- tinued the election by suffrage, but made the qualification lor office depend, not on birth, but property. The election by lot is believed to have been introduced by Cleisthenes (B. c. 508). The last change is supposed to have been made by Aristeides, who after the battle of Pl'ataea (B. c. 479) abolished the property qualification, throwing open the archonship and other magistracies to all the citizens ; that is, to the Thetes, as well as the other classes, the former of whom were not al- lowed by Solon's laws to hold any magistracy at all.
Still, after the removal of the old restric- tions, some security was left to insure respec- tability ; for, previously to an archon entering on office, he underwent an examination, call- ed the anacrisis (avditptatr), as to his being a legitimate and a good citizen, a good son, and qualified in point of property, but the latter limitation was either 'done away with by Aris- teides, or soon became obsolete. Yet, even after passing a satisfactory anacrisis, each of the archons, in common with other magis- trates, was liable to be deposed on complaint of misconduct made before the people, at the first regular assembly in each prytany. On such an occasion the evicheirotonia (kirixeipo- rovia), as it was called, took place : and we read that in one case the whole college of ar- chons was deprived of office (u/ro^etporo-
In consequence of the democratical tenden- cy of the assembly and courts of justice es- tablished by Solon, the archons lost the great political power which they at one time pos- sessed. They became, in fact, not as of old directors of the government, but merely mu- nicipal magistrates, exercising functions and bearing titles described below.
It has been already stated, that the duties of the single archon were shared by a college of nine. The first, or president of this body, was called Archon, by way of pre-eminence, or Archon Eponymus (aprwv ^Trwvv/zof ), from the year being distinguished by and registered in his name. The second was styled Archon Basileus (upruv paciXevc,), or the King Ar- chon ; the third Polemarchus ( no At/f ap^of ), or commander-in-chief ; the remaining six, Thesmothetae (dso/j-odeTai), or legislators. As regards the duties of the archons, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish what be- longed to them individually, and what col- lectively.
It seems that a considerable portion of the judicial functions of the ancient kings devol- ved upon the Archon Eponymus, who was also constituted a sort of state protector of those who were unable to defend themselves. Thus he was to superintend orphans, heiresses, families losing their representatives, widows left pregnant, and to see that they were not wronged in any way. This archon had also the superintendence of the greater Dionysia, and the Thargelia.
The functions of the King Archon were al- most all connected with religion ; his distin- guishing title shows that he was considered a representative of the old kings in their ca- pacity of high priest, as the Rex Sacrificulus was at Rome. Thus he presided at the Le- naea, or older Dionysia; superintended the mysteries and the games called Lampade- phoriae, and had to offer up sacrifices and prayers in the Eleusinium, both at Athens and Eleusis. Moreover, indictments for im- piety, and controversies about the priesthood, were laid before him ; and, in cases of mur- der, he brought the trial into the court of the areiopagus, and voted with its members. His wife, also, who was called Basilissa (fiaci- /lio-cra), had to offer certain sacrifices, and therefore it was required that she should be a citizen of pure blood, without stain or blem- ish.
The Polemarch was originally, as his name denotes, the commander-in-chief, and we find him discharging military duties as late as the battle of Marathon, in conjunction with the ten Strategi ; he there took, like the kings of old, the command of the right wing of the army. This, however, seems to be the last occasion on record of this magistrate appointed by lot being invested with such important functions ; and in after ages we find that his duties ceased to be military, having been, in a great measure, transferred to the protection and superintendence of the resident aliens, so that he resembled in many respects the praetor peregrinus at Rome. Thus, all actions af- fecting aliens, the isoteles and proxeni were brought before him previously to trial. More- over, it was the polemarch's duty to offer the yearly sacrifice to Diana, in commemoration of the vow made by Callimachus. at Mara- thon, and to arrange the funeral games in honour of those who fell in war.
The six Thesmothetae were extensively con- nected with the administration of justice, and appear to have been called legislators, because in the absence of a written code, they might be said to make laws, or thesmi (deajioi), in the ancient language of Athens, though in reality they only explained them. They v? ere
31
ARGUS TRIUMPHALIS.
required to review, every year, the whole body of laws, that they might detect any inconsis- tencies or superfluities, and discover whether any laws which were abrogated were in the public records amongst the rest. Their re- port was submitted to the people, who referred the necessary alterations to a legislative com- mittee chosen for the purpose, and called No- mothetae (vo^oderaC). The chief part of the duties of the thesmothetae consisted in re- ceiving informations, and bringing cases to trial in the courts of law, of the days of sitting in which they gave public notice. They did not try them themselves, but seem to have constituted a sort of grand jury, or in- quest.
The trial itself took place before the Dicas- tae. [DiCASTAE.]
It is necessary to be cautious in our inter- pretation of the words apxrj and apxovrec, since they have a double meaning in the At- tic orators, sometimes referring to the archons peculiarly so called, and sometimes to any other magistracy.
The archons had various privileges and honours. The greatest of the former was the exemption from the trierarchies — a boon not allowed even to the successors of Harmodius and Aristogeiton. As a mark of their office, they wore a chaplet or crowp of myrtle ; and if any one struck or abused one of the thes- mothetae or the archon, when wearing this badge of office, he became atimus (an/uoe), or infamous in the fullest extent, thereby losing his civic rights. The archons, at the close of their year of service, were admitted among the members of the areiopagus. [AREIOPA-
GUS.l
ARGUS TRIUMPHA'LIS, a triumphal arch forming a passage way, and erected in honour of an individual, or in commemoration of a conquest.
Triumphal arches were built across the principal streets of Rome, and, according to the space of their respective localities, con- sisted of a single archway, or a central one for carriages, and two smaller ones on each side for foot passengers. Those actually made use of on the occasion of a triumphal entry and procession were merely temporary and hastily erected ; and, having served their purpose, were taken down again, and some- times replaced by others of more durable ma- terials.
Stertinius is the first upon record who erected anything of the kind. He built an arch in the Forum Boarium, about B. c. 196, and another in the Circus Maximus, each of which was surmounted by gilt statues.
There are twenty-one arches recorded by
ARGUS.
different writers, as having been erected in the city of Rome, five of which now remain : — 1. Arcus Drusi, which was erected to the honour of Claudius Drusus on the Appian way. 2. Arcus Titi, at the foot of the Pala tine, which was erected to the honour of Titus, after his conquest of Judaea ; the bas- reliefs of this arch represent the spoils from the temple of Jerusalem carried in triumphal procession. 3. Arcus Septimii Severi, which was erected by the senate (A. D. 207) at the end of the Via Sacra, in honour of that em- peror and his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, on account of his conquest of the Parthians and Arabians. 4. Arcus Gallieni, erected to the honour of Gallienus by a private indi- vidual, M. Aurelius Victor. 5. Arcus Con- stantini, which was larger than the arch of Titus.
ARCUS (fiioc, rofrv), the bow used for shooting arrows, is one of the most ancient of all weapons, but is characteristic of Asia rather than of Europe. In the Roman ar- mies it was scarcely ever employed ex- cept by auxiliaries ; ary} these auxiliaries, called sagittarii, were chiefly Cretans and Ara- bians.
The upper of the two figures below shows the Scythian or Parthian bow unstrung ; the lower one represents the ufeual form of the Grecian bow, which had a double cur- vature, consisting of two circular portions united by the handle. When not used, the bow was put into a case (ro^od-fjKrjj yupvro?, corytus), which was made of leather, and sometimes ornamented.
Arcus, Bow.
The action of drawing a bow is well ex- hibited in the following outline of a statue belonging to the group of Aegina marbles. The bow, placed in the hands of this statue, was probably of bronze, and has been lost.
AREIOPAGUS.
A HE A (&Awf, or uAwu), the threshing- tioor, was a raised place in the field, open on all sides to the wind. Great pains were taken to make this floor hard ; it was some- times paved with flint stones, but more usu- ally covered with clay and smoothed with a roller.
AREIOPAGUS (6'Apetoc irayog, or hill of Mars), was a rocky eminence, lying to the west of, and not far from the Acropolis at Athens. It was the place of meeting of the council ('H ev 'Apeiu 7r«y^ /3ovA?;), which was sometimes called The Upper Council ('H avu /3ov/lJ7), to distinguish it from the senate of Five-hundred, which sat in the Cerameicus within the city.
It was a body of very remote antiquity, acting as a criminal tribunal, and existed long before the time of Solon, but he so far modified its constitution and sphere of duty, that he may almost be called its founder. What that original constitution was, must in some degree be left to conjecture, though there is every reason to suppose that it was aristocratical, the members being taken, like the ephetae, from the noble patrician families.
[EPHETAE.j
By the legislation of Solon the Areiopagus was composed of the ex-archons, who, after an unexceptionable discharge of their duties, " went up" to the Areiopagus, and became members of it for life, unless expelled for misconduct. As Solon made the qualifica- tion for the office of archon to depend not on birth but on property, the council after his time ceased to be aristocratic in constitution ; but, as we learn from Attic writers, continued so in spirit. In fact, Solon is said to have formed the two councils, the senate and the Areiopagus, to be a check upon the democra- cy ; that, as he himself expressed it, " the
I state riding upon them as- anchors might be | less tossed by storms." Nay, even after the archons were no longer elected by suffrage but by lot, and the office was thrown open by Areisteides to all the Athenian citizens, the "nipper council" still retained its former tone of feeling.
Moreover, besides these changes in its con- stitution, Solon altered and extended its func- tions. Before his time it was only a criminal court, trying cases of " wilful murder and wounding, of arson and poisining," whereas he gave it extensive powers of a censorial and political nature. Thus we learn that he made the council an " overseer of every thing, and the guardian of the laws," empowering it to inquire how any one got his living, and to punish the idle ; and we are also told that the Areiopagites were "superintendents of good order and decency," terms rather unlim- ited and undefined, as it is not improbable Solon wished to leave their authority. When heinous crimes had notoriously been com- mitted, but the guilty parties were not known, or no accuser appeared, the Areiopagus in- quired into the subject, and reported to the demus. The report or information was called apophasis. This was a duty which they sometimes undertook on their own responsi- bility, and in the exercise of an old establish- ed right, and sometimes on the order of the demus. Nay, to such an extent did they carry their power, that on one occasion they apprehended an individual (Antiphon), who had been acquitted by the general assembly, and again brought him to a trial, which end- ed in his condemnation and death. Again, we find them revoking an appointment where- by Aeschines was made the advocate of Ath- ens before the Amphictyonic council, and substituting Hyperides in his room.
They also had duties connected with reli- gion, one of which was to superintend the sacred olives growing about Athens, and try those who were charged with destroying them ; and in general it was their office to punish the impious and irreligious. Inde- pendent, then, of its jurisdiction as a criminal court in cases of wilful murder, which Solon continued to the Areiopagus, its influence must have been sufficiently great to have been a considerable obstacle to the aggran- dizement of the democracy at the expense of the other parties in the state. Accordingly, we find that Pericles, who was opposed to the aristocracy, resolved to diminish its power and circumscribe its sphere of action. His coadjutor in this work was Ephialtes, a statesman of inflexible integrity, and also a military commander. They experienced
36
AREIOPAGUS.
much opposition in their attempts, not only in the assembly, but also on the stage, where Aeschylus produced his tragedy of the Eu- menides, the object of which was to impress upon the Athenians the dignity, sacredness, and constitutional worth of the institution which Pericles and Ephialtes wished to re- form. Still the opposition failed : a decree was carried by which, as Aristotle says, the Areiopagus was "mutilated," and many of its hereditary rights abolished, though it is difficult to ascertain the precise nature of the alterations which Pericles effected.
The jurisdiction of the Areiopagus in case of murder was still left to them. In such cases the process was as follows : — The king archon brought the case into court, and sat as one of the judges, who were assembled in the open air, probably to guard against any contamination from the criminal. The ac- cuser first came forward to make a solemn oath that his accusation was true, standing over the slaughtered victims, and imprecating extirpation upon himself and his whole fam- ily, were it not so. The accused then denied the charge with the same solemnity and form of oath. Each party then stated his case with all possible plainness, keeping strictly to the subject, and not being allow- ed to appeal in any way to the feelings or passions of the judges. After the first speech, a criminal accused of murder might remove from Athens, and thus avoid the capital pun- ishment fixed by Draco's Thesmi, which on this point were still in force. Except in cases of parricide, neither the accuser nor the court had power to prevent this ; but the party who thus evaded the extreme punish- ment was not allowed to return home, and when any decree was passed at Athens to le- galize the return of exiles, an exception was always made against those who had thus left their country.
The Areiopagus continued to exist, in name at least, till a very late period. Thus we find Cicero mentions the council in his let- ters ; and an individual is spoken of as an Areiopagite under the emperors Gratian and Theodosius (A. D. 380).
The case of St. Paul is generally quoted as an instance of the authority of the Areio- pagus in religious matters ; but the words of the sacred historian do not necessarily imply that he was brought before the council. It may, however, be remarked, that the Areio- pagites certainly took cognizance of the in- troduction of new and unauthorized forms of religious worship, called iTridera ispd, in con- tradistinction to the TTdrpta or older rites of the state.
ARGENTARII.
ARE'NA. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]
ARETA'LOGI, persons who amused the company at the Roman dinner tables.
A'RGEI, the name given by the pontifices to the places consecrated by Numa for the celebration of religious services. Varro calls them the chapels of the argei, and says they were twenty-seven in number, distributed in the different districts of the city. There was a tradition that these argei were named from the chieftains who came with Hercules, the Argive, to Rome, and occupied the Capito- line, or, as it was anciently called, Saturnian hill. It is impossible to say what is the his- torical value or meaning of this legend ; we may, however, notice its conformity with the statement that Rome was founded by the Pelasgians, with whom the name of Argos was connected.
The name argei was also given to certain figures thrown into the Tiber from the Sub- lician bridge, on the Ides of May in every year. This was done by the pontifices, the vestals, the praetors, and other citizens, after the performance of the customary sacrifices. The images were thirty in number, made of bulrushes, and in the form of men. Ovid makes various suppositions to account for the origin of this rite : we can only conjecture that it was a symbolical offering, to propitiate the gods, and that the number was a repre- sentative either of the thirty patrician curiae at Rome, or perhaps of the thirty Latin town- ships.
ARGENTA'RII, bankers or money-chang- ers at Rome. The public bankers, or mensa- rii, are to be distinguished from the argenta- rii. The highest class of mensarii, the men- sarii quinqueviri or triumviri were a sort of ex- traordinary magistrates ; their business was to regulate the debts of the citizens, and to pro- vide and distribute specie on emergency. [MENSARII.] The argentarii, on the con- trary, were private bankers. Almost all mo- ney transactions were carried on through their intervention, and they kept the ac- count-books of their customers. Hence, all terms respecting the relation between debt- or and creditor were borrowed from bank- ing business ; thus, rationem accepti scribere (" to put down on the debtor's side in the banker's book") means " to borrow money ;" rescribere, " to pay it back again ;" nomen (an item in the account) is " a debt," or even " a debtor." These books of account have given rise to the modern Italian system of book- keeping by double-entry.
The functions of the argentarii, besides their original occupation of money- changing (permutatio argcnti) were as follows: — I. At-
ARIES.
tending public sales as agents for purchasers, in which case they were called interpretes. 2. Assaying and proving money (probatio num- morum). 3. Receiving deposits, or keeping a bank, in the modern sense of the word. If the deposit was not to bear interest, it was called depositum, or vacua pecunia ; if it was to bear interest, it was called creditum. The argentarii were said not only recipere, but also constituere, so that an action constitutae pecu- niae would lie against them.
The shops of the bankers were in the cloisters round the forum ; hence, money borrowed from a banker is called aes circum- foraneum ; and the phrases/oro cedere, or abire, foro mergi, &c., mean " to become bankrupt." The argentarii at Rome were divided into corporations (sodetates), and formed a colle- gium. The argentarius was necessarily a freeman.
ARGENTUM (upyvpoc), silver. Accord- ing to Herodotus, the Lydians were the first people who put a stamp upon silver ; but, ac- cording to the testimony of most ancient writers, silver money was first coined at Aegina, by order of Pheidon, about B. c. 748.
Silver was originally the universal currency in Greece, and it was not till a comparatively late time that copper or gold was coined in that country. [AES ; AURUM.] Accordingly we find that all the words connected with money are derived from apyvpof, as — aarap- yvpou, " to bribe with money ;" ap-yvpaftot- |3dc, " a money changer ;" &c. ; and apyvpoc, is itself not unfrequently used to signify mo- ney in general, as aes in Latin.
Silver was not coined at Rome till B. c. 269, five years before the first Punic war. The principal silver coins among the Greeks and Romans were respectively the drachma and denarius. [DRACHMA; DENARIUS.]
ARGYRA'SPIDES (apyvpaaKidec), a di- vision of the Macedonian army, who were so called because they carried shields covered with silver-plates.
A'RIES (/cpioc), the battering-ram, was used to batter down the walls of besieged cities. It consisted of a large beam, made of the trunk of a tree, especially of a fir or an ash. To one end was fastened a mass of bronze or iron (/ce</>a/l^, £u(3o%,7J, Trporo/z??), which resembled in its form the head of a ram. The upper figure in the annexed cut shows the aries in its simplest state, and as it was borne and impelled by human hands, without other assistance.
In an improved form, the ram was surround- ed with iron bands, to which rings were at- tached for the purpose of suspending it by ropes or chains from a beam fixed transversely D
ARMA.
\
over it. See the lower figure in the \ cut. By this contrivance the soldiers were
•tt
nc
Ariea, Battering Ram.
relieved from the necessity of supporting the weight of the ram, and they could with ease give it a rapid and forcible motion backwards and forwards.
The use of this machine was further aided by placing the frame in which it was sus- pended upon wheels, and also by construct ing over it a wooden roof, so as to form a " testudo," which protected the besieging party from the defensive assaults of the be- sieged.
ARMA, ARMATU'RA (li/rca, rev^ea, Horn. ; O7r/la), arms, armour.
Homer describes in various passages an en- tire suit of armour, and we observe that it consisted of the same portions which were used by the Greek soldiers ever after. More- over, the order of putting them on is always the same. The heavy-armed warrior, hav- ing already a tunic around his body, and pre- paring for combat, puts on — 1. his greaves (nvrifude^., ocreae) ; 2. his cuirass (6upa^, lori- ca), to which belonged the fiirprj underneath, and the zone (&VTJ, faarrip, cingulum), above ; 3. his sword (£i00f« ensis, gladius), hung on the left side of his body by means of a belt which passed over the right shoulder ; 4. the large round shield (o-a/coc, doTr/o, clipeus, scu- tum), supported in the same manner; 5. his helmet (/copvo, KVVETJ, cassis, galea) ; 6. he took his spear (ey^oc, <5(>pv, hasta), or, in many cases, two spears. The form and use of these portions are described in separate
38
ARMA.
ARMARIUM.
articles, under their Latin names. The an- another description of men, the peltastae nexed cut exhibits them all. (jre^Taarai), also formed a part of the Greek
Greek Soldier.
Those who were defended in the mannei which has now been represented are called by Homer aspistae (aaTriarai), from their great shield (d<77Uf) ; also angemachi (ayxs/udxot'), because they fought hand to hand with their adversaries ; but much more commonly pro- machi (Trp6fj.a%ot), because they occupied the front of the army.
In later times the heavy-armed soldiers were called hoplitae (<5;r/lmu)> because the term hopla (oTrAa) more especially denoted the defensive armour, the shield and thorax. By wearing these they were distinguished from the light-armed (ijj&oi, avoirhoi, yy/j.voi, yvjAVTJTai, yvfivi^req ),who, instead of being de- fended by the shield and thorax, had a much slighter covering, sometimes consisting of skins, and sometimes of leather or cloth ; and instead of the sword or lance, they commonly fought with darts, stones, bows and arrows, or slings.
Besides the heavy and light-armed soldiers,
Roman Soldier.
army, though we do not hear of them in early times. Instead of the large round shield, they carried a smaller one called the pelte (TT&TTI), and in other respects their armour, though heavier and more effective than that of the psili, was much lighter than that of the hop. lites. The weapon on which they principally depended was the spear.
The Roman legions consisted, as the Greek infantry for the most part did, of heavy and light-armed troops (gravis et levis armatura). The preceding figure represents a heavy-armed Roman soldier. On comparing it with that of | the Greek hoplite in the other cut, we per- ceive that the several parts of the armour cor- j respond, excepting only that the Roman sol- | dier wears a dagger) /udxcupa, pugio), on his ! right side instead of a sword on his left, and j instead of greaves upon his legs has femoralia \ andcaligae. All the essential parts of the Rom an | heavy armour (lorica,ensis,clipeus,galea, hasta), \ are mentioned together, except the spear, in | a well-known passage of St. Paul (Eph,vi.l7). ARMA'RIUM, originally a place for keep- I ing arms, afterwards a cupboard, in xvhich
ARVALES FRATRES.
were kept not only arms, but also clothes, books, money, and other articles of value. The armarium was generally placed in the atrium of the house.
ARM1LLA (ipafaov, -ty&iov, or ^E^IOV, xhidtJv, a//0idea), a bracelet or armlet, worn both by men and women.
The Roman generals frequently bestowed armillae upon soldiers for deeds of extraordi- nary merit.
ARMJLU'STRIUM, a Roman festival for the purification of arms. It was celebrated every year on the 19th of October, when the citizens assembled in arms, and offered sacri- fices in the place called Armiluslrum, or Vi- cus Armilustri.
ARMOUR. [ARMA.]
ARMS. [ARMA.]
ARMY. [EXERCITUS.]
ARRA, A'RRABO, or ARRHA, A'RRHA- BO, was the thing which purchasers and ven- ders gave to one another, whether it was a sum of money or anything else, as an evidence of the contract being made ; it was no essen- tial part of the contract of buying and selling, but only evidence of agreement as to price.
The term arrha, in its general sense of an evidence of agreement, was also used on other occasions, as in the case of betrothment (spon- salid). Sometimes the word arrha is used as synonymous with pignus, but this is not the legal meaning of the term.
ARROGA'TIO. [ADOPTIO.]
ARROWS. [ARCUS.]
ARTABA (aprdftr)), a Persian measure of capacity=l medimnus and 3 choenices (At- tic^ 102 Roman sextarii=12 gallons, 5.092 pints.
ARTEMI'SIA ('Apre^'crm), a festival cele- brated at Syracuse in honour of Diana Pota- mia and Soteira. It lasted three days, which were principally spent in feasting and amuse- ments. Festivals of the same name, and in honour of the same goddess, were held in many places in Greece, but principally at Delphi.
ARTOPTA. [PisTOR.]
ARU'RA (apovpa), a Greek measure of sur- face, mentioned by Herodotus, who says that it is a hundred Egyptian cubits in every direc- tion. Now the Egyptian cubit contained nearly 17| inches ; therefore the square of 100 X 17| inches, i.e. nearly 148 feet, gives the number of square feet (English) in the arura, viz. 21,904.
ARUSPEX. [HARUSPEX.]
ARVA'LES FRATRES, formed a college or company of twelve priests, and were so called from offering public sacrifices for the fertilit of the fields That they were of ex-
AS. 39
treme antiquity is proved by the legend which refers their institution to Romulus, of whom it is said, that when his nurse Acca Laurentia lost one of her twelve sons, he allowed him- self to be adopted by her in his place, and called himself and the remaining eleven " Fra- tres Arvales." We also find a college called the Sodales Titii, and as the latter were con- fessedly of Sabine origin, and instituted for the purpose of keeping up the Sabine reli- gious rites, it is probable that these colleges corresponded one to the other — the Fratres Arvales being connected with the Latin, and the Sodales Titii with the Sabine element of the Roman state.
The office of the fratres arvales was for life, and was not taken away even from an exile or captive. One of their annual duties was to celebrate a three days' festival in honour of Dea Dia, supposed to be Ceres, sometimes held on the 17th, 19th, and 20th, sometimes on the 27th, 29th, and 30th of May. But be- sides this festival of the Dea Dia, the fratres arvales were required on various occasions, under the emperors, to make vows and offer up thanksgivings.
Under Tiberius, the Fratres Arvales per- formed sacrifices called the Ambarvalia, at various places on the borders of the ager Ro- manus, or original territory of Rome ; and it is probable that this was a custom handed down from time immemorial, and, moreover, that it was a duty of the priesthood to invoke a blessing on the whole territory of Rome. There were also the private ambarvalia, which were so called from the victim (hostia ambar- valis) that was slain on the qccasion being led three times round the corn-fields, before the sickle was put to the corn. This victim was accompanied by a crowd of merry-makers, the reapers and farm-servants dancing and singing, as they marched, the praises of Ceres, and praying for her favour and presence.while they offered her the libations of milk, honey, and wine. This ceremony was also called a lus- tratio, or purification.
ARX signifies a height within the walls of a city, upon which a citadel was built, and thus came to be applied to the citadel itself. Thus the summit of the Capitoline hill at Rome is called Arx.
AS, or Libra, a pound, the unit of weight among the Romans. [LIBRA.]
AS, the unit of value in the Roman and old Italian coinages.was made of copper, or of the mixed metal called Ass. It was originally of the weight of a pound of twelve ounces, whence it was called as libralis and aes grave.
The oldest form of the as is that which bears the figure of an animal (a bull, ram, boar,
40
AS.
or sow). The next and most common form is that which has the two-faced head of Janus on one side, and the prow of a ship on the other (whence the expression used by Roman boys in tossing up, Capita ant navim.)
The annexed specimen from the British Museum weighs 4000 grains : the length of the diameter is half that of the original coin.
Roman As, or Libra.
Pliny informs us, that in the time of the first Punic war (B. c. 264 — 241), in order to meet the expenses of the state, this weight of a pound was diminished, and asses were struck of the same weight as the sextans (that is, two ounces, or one-sixth of the an- cient weight) ; and that thus the republic paid off its debts, gaining five parts in six ; that afterwards, in the second Punic war, in the dictatorship of Q. Fabius Maximus (B. c. 217), asses of one ounce were made, and the dena- rius was decreed to be equal to sixteen asses, the republic thus gaining one half; but that in military pay the denarius was always given for ten asses ; and that soon after, by the Pa- pirian law (about B. c. 191), asses of half an ounce were made.
The value of the as, of course, varied with its weight. Before the reduction to two oun- ces, ten asses were equal to the denarius = about 8£ pence English [DENARIUS]. There- fore the as = 3-4 farthings. By the reduc-
ASCIA.
tion the denarius? *vas made equal to 16 asses ; therefore the as = 2£ farthings.
The as was divided into parts, which were named according to the number of ounces they contained.
They were the deunx, dextans, dodrans, bes, septunx, semis, quincunx, triens, quadrans or te- runcius, sextans, sescunx or sescuncia, and uncia, consisting respectively of 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, li, and 1 ounces. Of these divisions the following were represented by coins ; namely, the semis, quincunx, triens, quadrans, sextans, and uncia.
After the reduction in the weight of the as, coins were struck of the value of 2, 3, 4, and even 10 asses, which were called respectively dussis or dupondius, tressis, quadrussis, and de~ cussis. Other multiples of the as were deno- ted by words of similar formation, up to cen- tussis, 100 asses ; but most of them do not exist as coins.
In certain forms of expression, in which aes is used for money without specifying the de- nomination, we must understand the as. Thus deni aeris, mills aeris, decies aeris, mean respectively 10, 1000, 1,000,000 asses.
The word as was used also for any whole which was to be divided into equal parts ; and those parts were called unciae. Thus these words were applied not only to weight and money, but to measures of length, surface, and capacity, to inheritances, interest, houses, farms, and many other things. Hence the phrases haeres ex asse, the heir to a whole es- tate ; haeres ex dodrante, the heir to three- fourths.
ASC1A, dim. ASCIOLA (GK.eTtu.pvov, or (TKeTrapviov), an adze. Muratori has published numerous representations of the adze, as it is exhibited on ancient monuments. We select the three following, two of which show the
instrument itself, with a slight variety of form, while the third represents a ship-builder hold- ing it in his right hand, and using it to shape the rib of a vessel.
ASSEMBLIES of the people at Athens [ECCLESIA] ; at Rome [COMITIA].
ASSERTOR, or ADSERTOR, contains the same root as the verb adserere, which, when coupled with the word manu, signifies to lay hold of a thing, to draw it towards one. Hence the phrase adserere in libertatem, or lib- c.rali adserere manu, applies to him who lays his hand on a person reputed to be a slave, and asserts, or maintains his freedom. The person who thus maintained the freedom of a reputed slave was called adsertor. The per- son whose freedom was thus claimed was said ?;> be adsertus. The expressions liberalis causa,, and liberalis manus, which occur in con- nection with the verb adserere, will easily be understood from what has been said. Some- times the word adserere alone was used as equivalent to adserere in libertatem. The ex- pression asserere in servitutem, to claim a per- son as a slave, occurs in Livy.
ASSESSOR, or ADSESSOR, literally one who sits by the side of another. Since the Consuls, praetors, governors of provinces, and the judices, were often imperfectly acquainted with the law and forms of procedure, it was necessary that they sho-ld have the aid of those who had made the law their study. The assessors sat on the tribunal with the magis- trate. Their advice or aid, was given during the proceedings as well as at other times, but they never pronounced a judicial sen- tence.
ASTY'NOMI (u<7Tvv6fj.oi\ or street-police of Athens, were ten in number, five for the city, and as many for the Peiraeeus. The as- tynomi and agoranomi divided between them most of the functions of the Roman aediles. [AGORANOMI.]
ASY'LUM (aavTiov). In the Greek states the temples, altars, sacred groves, and statues of the gods, generally possessed the privilege of protecting slaves, debtors, and criminals, who fled to them for refuge. The laws, how- ever, do not appear to have recognized the right of all such sacred places to afford the protection which was claimed, but to have confined it to a certain number of temples or altars, which were considered in a more es- pecial manner to have the aay'hia, or jus asyli. There were several places in Athens which possessed this privilege ; of which the best known was the Theseium, or temple of The- seus, in the city, near the gymnasium, which was chiefly intended for the protection of ill- treated slaves, who could take refuge in this
D'2
ATHLETAE. 4\
place, and compel their masters to sell tu- a to some other person.
In the time of Tiberius, the number of places possessing the jus asyli in the Greek cities in Greece and Asia Minor, became so numerous as seriously to impede the administration of justice ; and consequently, the senate, by the command of the emperor, limited the jus asyli to a few cities.
The asylum, which Romulus is said to have opened at Rome to increase the population oi the city, was a place of refuge for the inhabi- tants of other states, rather than a sanctuary for those who had violated the laws of the city. In the republican and early imperial times, a right of asylum, such as existed in the Greek states, does not appear to have been recognized by the Roman law ; but it existed under the empire, and a slave could fly to the temples of the gods, or the statues of the em- perors, to avoid the ill-usage of his master.
ATELEIA (tiTeheid), immunity from pub- lic burthens, was enjoyed at Athens by the archons for the time being ; by the descend- ants of certain persons, on whom it had been conferred as a reward for great services, as in the case of Harmodius and Aristpgeiton ; and by the inhabitants of certain foreign states. It was of several kinds : it might be a general im- munity (are^eta airdvTCjv) ; or a more special exemption, as from custom duties, from the liturgies, or from providing sacrifices.
ATELLA'NAE FA'BULAE, were a spe cies of farce or comedy, so called from Atella, a town of the Osci, in Campania. From this circumstance, and from being written in the Oscan dialect, they were also called Ludi Osci.
These Atellane plays were not praetextatae, i. e. comedies in which magistrates and per- sons of rank were introduced, nor tabernariae, the characters in which were taken from low life ; they rather seem to have been an union of high comedy and its parody. They were also distinguished from the mimes by the ab- sence of low buffoonery and ribaldry, being remarkable for a refined humour, such as could be understood and appreciated by edu- cated people. They were not performed by regular actors (histrion.es), but by Roman citi- zens of noble oirth, who were not on that account subjected to any degradation, but re- tained their rights as citizens, and might serve in the army. The Oscan or Opican language, in which these plays were written, was spread over the whole of the south of Italy, and from its resemblance to the Latin, could easily be understood by the more educated Romans.
ATHLE'TAE (ud^rai, uflA^pef), per- sons who contended in the public games of
I'J
ATHLETAE.
the Greeks and Romans for prizes (d0Aa, whence the name of (aO^Tai), which were given to those who conquered in contests of agil- ity and strength. The name was in the later period of Grecian history, and among the Ro- mans, properly confined to those persons who entirely devoted themselves to a course of training which might fit them to excel in such contests, and who, in fact, made athletic ex- ercises their profession. The athletae differed, therefore, from the agonistae (ay6mora/),who only pursued gymnastic exercises for the sake of improving their health and bodily strength, and who, though they sometimes contended for the prizes in the public games, did not devote their whole lives, like the athletae, to preparing for these contests.
A thletae were first introduced at Rome, B. c. 186, in the games exhibited by M. Fulvius, on the conclusion of the Aetolian war. Aemilius Paullus, after the conquest of Perseus, B. c. 167, is said to have exhibited games at Am- phipolis, in which athletae contended. Under the Roman emperors, and especially under Nero, who was passionately fond of the Gre- cian games, the number of athletae increased greatly in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor.
Those athletae who conquered in any of the great national festivals of the Greeks were called Hieronicae (tepovtKdi), and re- ceived the greatest honours and rewards. Such a conqueror was considered to confer honour upon the state to which he belonged ; he entered his native city through a breach made in the walls for his reception, in a cha- riot drawn by four white horses, and went along the principal street of the city to the temple of the guardian deity of the state. Those games, which gave the conquerors the right of such an entrance into the city, were called Iselastici(hom elfefatvveiv). This term was originally confined to the four great Grecian festivals, the Olympian, Isthmian, Nemean, and Pythian, but was afterwards applied to other public games. In the Greek states, the victors in these games not only obtained the greatest glory and respect, but also substantial rewards. They were gene- rally relieved from the payment of taxes, and also enjoyed the first seat (irpoedpia) in all public games and spectacles. Their statues were frequently erected at the cost of the state, in the most frequented part of the city, as the market-place, the gymnasia, and the neighbourhood of the temples. At Athens, according to a law of Solon, the conquerors in the Olympic games were rewarded with a prize of 500 drachmae ; and the cpnquerors in the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian, with one of M)0 drachmae ; and at Sparta they
ATRAMENTUM.
had the privilege of fighting near the person of the king. The privileges of the athletae were secured, and in some respects increased by the Roman emperors.
The term athletae, though sometimes ap- plied metaphorically to other combatants, was properly limited to those who contended for the prize in the five following contests : — 1. Running (dp6[j.o£, cursus). [STADIUM.] 2. Wrestling (Kakfi lucta). 3. Boxing (jrvy- (jirj, pugilatus). 4. The pentathlum (irevTaQ- hov), or, as the Romans called it, quinquerti- um. 5. The pancratium (TrayKpurtov). Oi all these an account is given in separate ar- ticles. Great attention was paid to the train- ing of the athletae. They were generally trained in the palaestrae, which, in the Grecian states, were distinct places from the gymna- sia. Their exercises were superintended by the gymnasiarch, and their diet was regu- lated by the aliptes. [ALIPTAE.]
ATI'MIA (u.Tifj,ia), the forfeiture of a man's civil rights at Athens. It was either total or partial. A man was totally deprived of his rights, both for himself and for his de- scendants (KaduTrat; aTijuoc;), when he was convicted of murder, theft, false witness, partiality as arbiter, violence offered to a magistrate, and so forth. This highest de- gree of atimia excluded the person affected by it from the forum, and from all public as- semblies ; from the public sacrifices, and from the law courts ; or rendered him liable to immediate imprisonment, if he was found in any of these places. It was either tempo- rary or perpetual, and either accompanied or not with confiscation of property. Partial atimia only involved the forfeiture of some few rights, as, for instance, the right of plead- ing in court. Public debtors were suspended from their civic functions till they discharged their debt to the state. People who had once become altogether atimi were very sel- dom restored to their lost privileges. The converse term to atimia was epitimia (errm- O).
ATRAMENTUM, a term applicable to any black colouring substance, for whatever purpose it may be used, like the melan (/u&av) of the Greeks. There were, however, three principal kinds of atramentum : one called librarium or scriptorium (in Greek, ypatytKov yue/lav), writing-ink ; another called sutorium, which was used by the shoemakers for dye- ing leather ; the third tectorium or pictorium, which was used by painters for some pur- poses, apparently as a sort of varnish. The inks of the ancients seem to have been more durable than our own ; they were thicker and more unctuous, in substance and durability
ATRIUM.
more resembling the ink now used by print- ers. An inkstand was discovered at Hercula- neum, containing ink as thick as oil, and still usable for writing. The following cut repre- sents inkstands found at Pompeii.
The ancients used inks of various colours. Red ink, made of minium or vermilion, was used for writing the titles and beginning of books. So also was ink made of rubrica, " red ochre ;" and because the headings of laws were written with rubrica, the word rubric came to be used for the civil law. So album, a white or whited table, on which the praetors' edicts were written, was used in a similar way. A person devoting himself to album and rubrica, was a person devoting him- self to the law. [ALBUM.]
A'TRIUM (called ai>/b? by the Greeks and by Virgil, and also fj,etjayhi,ov, irspiarvhov, Trepiaruov), is used in a distinctive as well as collective sense, to designate a#particular part in the private houses of the Romans [DOMUS], and also a class of public buildings, so called? from their general resemblance in construction to the atrium of a private house. An atrium of the latter description was a building by itself, resembling in some re- spects the open basilica [BASILICA], but con- sisting of three sides. Such was the Atrium Publicum in the capitol, which, Livy informs us, was struck with lightning, B. c. 216. It was at other times attached to some temple or other edifice, and in such case consisted of an open area and surrounding portico in front of the structure.
Several of these buildings are mentioned by the ancient historians, two of which were dedicated to the same goddess, Libertas. The most celebrated, as well as the most ancient, was situated on the Aventine" Mount. In this atrium there was a tabularium, where the legal tablets (tabulae) relating to the cen- sors were preserved. The other Atrium Lib-
AUCTOR. 43
ertatis was in the neighbourhood of the Fo rum Caesaris, and was immediately behind the Basilica Paulli or Aemilia.
AU'CTIO signifies generally " an increas- ing, an enhancement," and hence the name is applied to a public sale of goods, at which persons bid against one another. The sale was sometimes conducted by an argentarius or by a magister auctionis ; and the time, place, and conditions of sale, were announced either by a public notice (tabula, album, &c.), or by a crier (praeco).
The usual phrases to express the giving notice of a sale were, auctionem proscribere, praedicare ; and to determine on a sale, auc- tionem constituere. The purchasers (emtores), when assembled, were sometimes said ad tabulam adesse. The phrases signifying to bid are, liceri, licitari, which was done either by word of mouth, or by such significant hints as are known to all people who have attended an auction. The property was said to be knocked down (addici) to the pur- chaser.
The praeco, or crier, seems to have acted the part of the modern auctioneer, so far as calling out the biddings, and amusing the company. Slaves, when sold by auction, were placed on a stone, or other elevated thing ; and hence the phrase homo de lapide emtus. It was usual to put up a spear (hasta) in auctions ; a symbol derived, it is said, from the ancient practice of selling under a spear the booty acquired in war.
AUCTION (sale). [Aucxio.]
AUCTOR, a word which contains the same element as aug-eo, and signifies gen- erally one who enlarges, confirms, or gives to a thing its completeness and efficient form. The numerous technical significa- tions of the word are derivable from this general notion. As he who gives to a thing that which is necessary for its complete- ness may in this sense be viewed as the chief actor or doer, the word auctor is also used in the sense of one who originates or proposes a thing ; but this cannot be viewed as its primary meaning. Accordingly, the word auctor, when used in connection with lex or senatus consultum, often means him who originates and proposes. Whon a measure was approved by the senate before it was confirmed by the votes of the people, the senate were said auctores fieri, and this preliminary approval was called senatus auctoritas.
When the word auctor is applied to him who recommends but does not originate a legislative measure, it is equivalent to suasor. Sometimes both auctor and suasor are used
AUGURES.
in the same sentence, and the meaning of each is kept, distinct.
With reference to dealings between indi- viduals, auctor has the sense of owner. In this sense auctor is the seller (venditor), as opposed to the buyer (emtor) ; and hence we have the phrase a malo auctore emere.
Auctor is also used generally to express any person under whose authority any legal act is done. In this sense it means a tutor who is appointed to aid or advise a woman on account of the infirmity of her sex.
AUCTORAMENTUM, the pay of gladia- tors. [GLADIATORES.]
AUCTO'RITAS. The technical meanings of this word correlate with those of auctor.
The auctoritas senatus was not a senatus- consultum ; it was a measure, incomplete in itself, which received its completion by some other authority.
Auctoritas, as applied to property, is equiv- alent to legal ownership, being a correlation of auctor.
AUGURES (oluvoTtohoi), priests, who formed a college or corporation at Rome.
The institution of augurs is lost in the ori- gin of the Roman state. According to that view of the constitution which makes it come entire from the hands of the first king, a col- lege of three was appointed by Romulus, an- swering to the number of the three early tribes. Numa was said to have added two ; yet at the passing of the Ogulnian law (B. c. 300) the augurs were but four in number : whether, as Livy supposes, the deficiency was accidental, is uncertain. By the law just mentioned, their number became nine, five of whom were cho- sen from the plebs. The dictator Sulla fur- ther increased them to fifteen, a multiple of their original number, which probably had a reference to the early tribes. This number continued until the time of Augustus, who, among other extraordinary powers, had the right conferred on him, in B. c. 29, of electing augurs at his pleasure, whether there was a vacancy or not, so that from this time the number of the college was unlimited.
The augurs, like the other priests, were originally elected by the comitia curiata, or assembly of the patricians in their curiae. As no election was complete without the sanction of augury, the college virtually possessed a veto on the election of all its members. They very soon obtained the privilege of self-elec- tion (jus cooptationis), which, with one inter- ruption, viz/ at the election of the first ple- beian augurs, they retained until B. c. 104, the year of the Domitian law. By this law it was enacted that vacancies in the priestly colleges Bhould be filled up by the votes of a minority
of the tribes, i. e. seventeen out of thirty-five, chosen by lot. The Domitian law was re- pealed by Sulla, but again restored, B. c. 63, during the consulship of Cicero, by the tri- bune, T. Annius Labienus, with the support of Caesar. It was a second time abrogated by Antony; whether again restored by Hirti- us and Pansa, in their general annulment of the acts of Antony, seems uncertain. The emperors, as mentioned above, possessed the right of electing augurs at pleasure.
The augurship is described by Cicero, him- self an augur, as the highest dignity in the state, having an authority which could prevent the comitia from voting, or annul resolutions already passed, if the auspices had not been duly performed. The words alio die, from a single augur, might put a stop to all business, and a decree of the college had several times rescinded laws.
The augurs were elected for life, and, even if capitally convicted, never lost their sacred character. When a vacancy occurred, the candidate was nominated by two of the elder members of the college ; the electors were sworn, and the new member took an oath of secresy before his inauguration. The only distinction among them was one of age, the eldest augur being styled magister collegii. Among other privileges, they enjoyed that of wearing the purple praetexta, or, according to some, the trabea. On ancient coins they are represented wearing a long robe.which veiled the head and reached down to the feet, thrown back over the left shoulder. They hold in the right hand a lituus, or curved wand, hooked at the end like a crosier, and sometimes have the capis, or earthen water-vessel by their side. The chief duties of the augurs were to ob- serve and report supernatural signs. They were also the repositaries of the ceremonial law, and had to advise on the expiation of prodigies, and other matters of religious ob- servance. Other duties of the augurs were to assist magistrates and generals in taking the auspices. At the passing of a lex curiata, three were required to be present, a number prob- ably designed to represent the three ancient tribes.
One of the difficulties connected with this subject is to distinguish between the religious duties of the augurs and of the higher magis- trates. Under the latter were included con- sul, praetor, and censor. A single magistrate had the power of proroguing the comitia by the formula se de coelo servare. [AuspiciuM.j The law obliged him to give notice before- hand, so that it can only have been a religious way of exercising a constitutional right. The spectio, as it was termed, was a voluntary duty
AUREUS.
on the part of the magistrate, and no actual observation was required. On the other hand, the augurs were employed by virtue of their office ; they declared the auspices, from im- mediate observation, without giving any pre- vious notice ; they had the right of nuntiatio, not of spectio, at least in the comitia; in other words, they were to report prodigies, where they did, not to invent them, where they did not", exist.
Augury was one of the many safeguards which the oligarchy opposed to the freedom of the plebs: of the three comitia — curiata, cenluriata, and tributa — the two former were subject to the auspices. As the favourable signs were known to the augurs alone, their scruples were a pretext for the government to put off an inconvenient assembly. Yet in early times the augurs were not the mere tools of the government, and their indepen- dence under the kings seems to be testified by the story of Attus Naevius. During many centuries their power was supported by the voice of public opinion. Livy tells us that the first military tribunes abdicated in conse- quence of a decree of the augurs ; and on another occasion the college boldly declared the plebeian dictator, M. Claudius Marcellus, to be irregularly created. During the civil wars the augurs were employed by both par- ties as political tools. Cicero laments the neglect and decline of the art in his day. The college of augurs was finally abolished by the emperor Theodosius.
AUGURA'LE, the place where the aus- pices were taken. [AUSPICIUM.]
AUGU'RIUM, divination by the flight and voice of birds. [AUSPICIUM.]
AUGUST A'LES(sc./ttd£, also called Augus- talia), games celebrated in honour of Augustus, at Rome and in other parts of the Roman em- pire. They were exhibited annually at Rome in the circus, at first by the tribunes of the plebs, but afterwards by the praetor pere- grinus.
AUGUSTA'LES, an order of priests in the municipia, who were appointed by Augustus, and selected from the libertini, whose duty it was to attend to the religious rites connected with the worship of the Lares and Penates, which Augustus put in places where two or more ways met.
These Augustales should be distinguished from the sodales Augustales, who were an order of priests instituted byTiberiusto attend to the worship of Augustus, and were chosen by lot from among the principal persons of Rome.
AULAEUM. [SiPARiDM.]
AUREUS. [AURUM.]
AURUM CORONAR1UM.
45
AURI'GA. [CIRCUS.]
AURUM (xpyaotf, gold. Gold appears not to have been coined at Athens till the time ot the Macedonian empire, with the exception of a solitary issue of a debased coinage in B. c. 407. But from a very early period the Asiatic nations, and the Greek cities of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands, possessed a gold coinage, which was more or less current in Greece. Herodotus says that the Lydians were the first who coined gold ; and the stater of Croesus appears to have been the earliest gold coin known to the Greeks. The daric was a Persian coin. Staters of Cyzicus and Phocaea had a considerable currency in Greece. There was a gold coinage in Samos as early as the time of Polycrates. [DARICUS ; STATER.]
The standard gold coin of Rome was the aureus nummus, or denarius aureus, which, ac- cording to Pliny, was first coined sixty-two years after the first silver coinage [ARGEN- TUM], that is, in B. c. 207. The lowest de- nomination was the scrupulum, which was made equal to twenty sestertii. The value of the aureus is 11. Is. Id. and a little more than a halfpenny. This is its value accord- ing to the present worth of gold ; but its cur rent value in Rome was different from this, since the relative value of gold and silver was different in ancient times from what it is at present. The aureus passed for twen- ty-five denarii ; therefore, the denarius being 8%d., the aureus was worth 17s. 8%d. The following cut represents an aureus of Au- gustus in the British Museum, which weighs 121 grains.
Aureus of Augustus.
Alexander Severus coined pieces of one- half and one-third of the aureus, called semis- sis and tremissis ; after which time the aureus was called solidus.
AURUM CORONA'RIUM. When a gen- eral in a Roman province had obtained a vic- tory, it was the custom for the cities in his own provinces, and for those from the neigh- bouring states, to send golden crowns to him, which were carried before him in his triumph at Rome. In the time of Cicero it appears to have been usual for the cities of the prov- inces, instead of sending crowns on occasion
46 AUSPICIUM.
of a victory, to pay money, which was called aurum coronarium. This offering, which was at first voluntary, came to be regarded as a regular tribute, and was sometimes exacted by the governors of the provinces, even when no victory had been gained.
AUSPrCIUM, originally meant a sign from birds. The word is derived from avis, and the root spec. As the Roman religion was gradually extended by additions from Greece and Etruria, the meaning of the word was widened, so as to include any supernat- ural sign. The chief difference between auspi- cium and augurium seems to have been that the latter term is never applied to the spectio p? the magistrate. [AUGUR.]
Birds were divided into two classes — oscines and praepetes ; the former gave omens by singing, the latter by their flight and the mo- tion of their wings. Every motion of every bird had a different meaning, according to the different circumstances or times of the year when it was observed.
Another division of birds was into dextrae and sinistrae, about the meaning of which some difficulty has arisen from a confusion of Greek and Roman notions in the writings of the classics. The Greeks and Romans were generally agreed that auspicious signs came from the east, but as the Greek priest turned his face to the north the east was on his right hand, the Roman augur with his face to the south had the east to his left. The confusion was farther increased by the euphemisms common to both nations ; and the rule itself was not universal at least with the Romans ; the jay when it appeared on the left, the crow on the right being thought to give sure omens.
The auspices were taken before a marriage, before entering on an expedition, before the passing of laws, or election of magistrates, or any other important occasion, whether public or private. In early times such was the importance attached to them that a sol- dier was released from the military oath, if the auspices had not been duly performed.
The commander-in-chief of an army re- ceived the auspices, together with the imperi- um, and a war was therefore said to be car- ried on ductu et auspicio imperatoris, even if he were absent from the army, and thus, if the legatus gained a victory in the absence of his commander, the latter, and not his deputy, was honoured by a triumph.
The ordinary manner of taking the auspi- ces was as follows: — The augur went out before the dawn of day, and sitting in an open place, with his head veiled, marked out with a wand (lituus) the divisions of the
AUTHEPSA.
heavens. Next he declared in a solemn form of words the limits assigned, making shrubs or trees, called tesqua, his boundary on earth correspondent to that in the sky. The tern- plum augurale, which appears to have included ooth, was divided into four parts : those to the east and west were termed sinistrae and dextrae ; to the north and south, anticae and posticae. If a breath of air disturbed the calmness of the heavens, the auspices could not be taken ; and according to Plutarch it was for this reason the augurs carried lan- terns open to the wind. After sacrificing, the augur offered a prayer for the desired signs to appear, repeating after an inferior minister a set form ; unless the first appear- ances were confirmed by subsequent ones, they were insufficient. If, in returning home, the augur came to a running stream, he again repeated a prayer, and purified himself in its waters ; otherwise the auspices were held to be null.
Another method of taking the auspices, more usual in military expeditions, was from the feeding of birds confined in a cage, and committed to the care of the pullarius. An ancient decree of the college of augurs al- lowed the auspices to be taken from any bird. When all around seemed favourable, either at dawn or in the evening, the pullarius opened the cage and threw to the chickens pulse, or a kind of soft cake. If they refused to come out, or to eat, or uttered a cry (oc- cinerunt), or beat their wings, or flew away, the signs were considered unfavourable, and the engagement was delayed. On the con- trary, if they ate greedily, so that something fell and struck the earth (tripudium solistimum ; tripudium quasi terripavivm, solistimum, from solum, the latter part of the word probably from the root stimulo), it was held a favoura- ble sign.
The place where the auspices were taken, called auguraculum, augurale, or auguratorium, was open to the heavens. One of the most ancient of these was on the Palatine hill, the regular station for the observation of augurs. Sometimes the auspices were taken in the capitol. In the camp a place was set apart to the right of the general's tent.
The lex Aelia and Fufia provided that no assemblies of the people should be held, nisi prius de coelo servatum esset. It appears to have confirmed to the magistrates the power of obnunciatio,or of interposing a veto. [ AUGUR.]
AUTHEPSA (avdeipjj^, which literally means " self-boiling," or " self cooking," was the name of a vessel which is supposed to have been used for heating water, or for keep ing it hot.
BALNEUM.
47
AUTO'NOMI (avTOvdftoi), the name given oy the Greeks to those states which were gov- erned by their own laws, and were not subject to any foreign power. This name was also given to those cities subject to the Romans, which were permitted to enjoy their own laws and elect their own magistrates.
AUXI'LIA. [Soon.]
AXE. [SECURIS.]
AXIS. [CURRUS.]
AXLE. [CURRUS.]
A'XONES (4fw«f), wooden tablets of a square or pyramidal form, made to turn on an axis, on which were written the laws of Solon.
B.
BAIL. [ACTIO.]
BAKER. [PisTOR.]
BALISTA, BALLISTA. [TORMENTUM.]
BALL, game at. [PiLA.]
BA'LNEUM or BALI'NEUM (Aoerpov or
, fiahavetov, also balneae or balineae), a bath. Balneum or balineum signifies, in its primary sense, a bath or bathing vessel, such as most Romans possessed in their own houses ; and from that it came to mean the chamber which contained the bath. When the baths of private individuals became more sumptuous, and comprised many rooms, the plural balnea or balinea was adopted, which still, in correct language, had reference only to the baths of private persons. Balneae and balineae, which have no singular number, were the public baths. But this accuracy of dic- tion is neglected by many of the subsequent writers. Thermae (from depart, warmth) mean properly warm springs, or baths of warm water, but were afterwards applied to the structures in which the baths were placed, and which were both hot and cold. 'There was, however, a material distinction between the balneae and thermae, inasmuch as the for- mer was the term used under the republic, and referred to the public establishments of that age, which contained no appliances for luxury beyond the mere convenience of hot and cold baths, whereas the latter name was given to those magnificent edifices which grew up under the empire, and which com- prised within their range of buildings all the appurtenances belonging to the Greek gym- nasia, as well as a regular establishment ap- propriated for bathing.
Bathing was a practice familiar to the Greeks of both sexes from the earliest times. The artificial warm bath was taken in a vessel called asaminthus (liadftivdog), by Homer, and
puelus (TTiieAof) by the later Creeks. It did not contain water itself, but wa • only used for the bather to sit in, while the varm water was poured over him. On Greek vases, how- ever, we n^ver find anything corresponding to a modem bath in which persons can stand or sit ; but there is always a round or oval basin (Aour^p or hovrftpiov), resting on a stand, by the side of which those who are bathing are standing undressed and washing themselves.
In the Homeric times it was customary to take first a cold and afterwards a warm bath ; but in later times it was the usual practice of the Greeks to take first a warm or vapour, and afterwards a cold bath. At Athens the fre- quent use of the public baths, most of which were warm baths (j3a2.avela, called by Homer 6epfj,a yloerpa), was regarded in the time of Socrates and Demosthenes as a mark of lux- ury and effeminacy. Accordingly, Phocion was said to have never bathed in a public bath, and Socrates to have used it very seldom.
After bathing, both sexes anointed them- selves, in order that the skin might not be left harsh and rough, especially after warm water. Oil (Zhaiov) is the only ointment mentioned by Homer, but in later times precious un- guents (/u,vpa) were used for this purpose. The bath was usually taken